Employment: Education and Students

1. Depict the aptitudes or traits you accept are important to be remarkable when working in understudy bolster administrations. You must have the option to relate and comprehend with the understudies on a positive level to arrive at an ideal result from any circumstance. Slope Academy trained me when managing understudies with extraordinary necessities it's ideal to go for a methodology where you can chat with them one on one and show signs of improvement understanding regarding how they are figuring, what might be the most ideal result and what is the best answer for the issue without a peacefulness approach.Students what to realize they have the help of a grown-up broken part with whom they can trust and construct a positive strong relationship with and I think all these key variables help to make an exceptional understudy bolster administration. 2. It would be ideal if you recognize and portray any critical contrasts you would advance in a school which a lion's share of the unders tudies are African-American and Hispanic/Latino.I would advance a program where African Americans and Hispanic/Latino both have the chance to find out about every others societies with the goal that the understudies have a superior comprehension of one another and call attention to the likenesses in each culture so the understudies can meet up as one. I feel just as the two societies don't completely see each other overall and that makes a social conflict. I would be completely fascinating in making a constructive domain with the schools staff and assets to give a shared view that will make stable connections among the understudies and flawed members.Throughout my long periods of business working with the young and past staff individuals I have figured out how to be a decent audience, an incredible issue solver in the most disorganized and most noticeably awful circumstances, a constructive cooperative person and above all a caring and getting individual. I am energetic about applyi ng my abilities which I have gained through past understanding and I anticipate being separated of the group to have a persuasive effect in the Proviso Township High Schools. . How might you address a wide scope of abilities in your classroom?Dupage school A great deal of arranging. The least demanding activity is pull little gatherings. On the off chance that your school utilizes 3 gathering pivot it is anything but difficult to execute. In the event that your school utilizes another technique for guidance you can pull bunches during any autonomous work time. At the point when a few understudies are finishing an autonomous task you pull another gathering to work with you (on that equivalent movement or anther exercise all together. ) When the understudies need to finish a similar movement you can separate by defining various objectives for various students.In composing assignments you can modify the quantity of sentences that should be composed, how much sentences should be broaden ed, or what number of subtleties should be incorporated. A few understudies may alter all alone, some with an accomplice, or some in a little gathering with you. For perusing assignments you may need to give distinctive leveled books to various children. You can discover numerous books on a similar point at various levels. Most occasions your instructor manual will list elective book choices for further developed or battling readers.For perusing assignments that all understudies need to finish attempt choral, reverberation, or accomplice perusing for the individuals who need it. Math is the least demanding to separate. A few children can utilize manipulative and some may have the option to utilize mental math. Furthermore, you can do an acquaintance and guided practice with the entire class. Whoever can finish the free task all alone can do that and you can pull a little gathering for those understudies who despite everything need guided practice or all the more framework.

502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway The creator challenges the handiness of the review information delivered by portfolio tests as produces of the presentation of print promoting. The contrasts between the viability of these review measures and other review measures are considered in another light. Test has been THE most generally utilized methodologies nonwhite just the â€Å"recall score† parts of portfolio the to tests are addressed here. We will compose a custom exposition test on Portfolio Tests : Are They Here to Stay or on the other hand any comparable subject just for you Request Now Different discoveries pre-testing of print publicizing. This strategy, which includes introduction of the â€Å"test ad† in an envelope which likewise contains number of â€Å"control ads,† yields different and various â€Å"playbacks† or review information as the central rules of publicizing execution. Such review measures are commonly communicated as a level of respondents who can review the brand or potentially item publicized, or pictorial or duplicate parts of a commercial after the envelope of promotions has been seen in the interviewer’s nearness, for a short time interim. These playbacks are normally founded on independent review of the advertisement or promotions being referred to, albeit standard â€Å"prompts† are regularly used to deliver supported review playbacks to enhance those got from independent review. The portfolio technique may likewise include appraisals of the promotions or items publicized in numerous occurrences. The playback scores are the primary quantitative subordinates of portfolio tests in essence, be that as it may. Note that John C. Maloney is Manager of Research Development at Leo Burnett Company, Inc. , Chicago. He is an alum of the University of Nebraska and holds M. S. What's more, Ph. D. Degrees in brain science from Purdue University. Notwithstanding wide involvement with promoting and shopper investigate work, DRP. Maleness’s exercises have given him a bizarre chance to think about wide scope of publicizing research strategies. He is a speaker in Psychology of Advertising and Selling at Northwestern University. 32 from tests which may include the introduction of more than one commercial to a respondent in a similar organizer or â€Å"portfolio† are not considered in this article. Instructions to refer to Portfolio Tests : Are They Here to Stay, Papers 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway 502 Bad Gateway The creator challenges the value of the review information delivered by portfolio tests as makes of the exhibition of print publicizing. The contrasts between the adequacy of these review measures and other review measures are considered in another light. PORTFOLIO test has been THE most broadly utilized methodologies another just the â€Å"recall score† parts of portfolio the to tests are addressed here. We will compose a custom article test on Portfolio Tests : Are They Here to Stay? or then again any comparative theme just for you Request Now Different discoveries pre-testing of print promoting. This technique, which includes introduction of the â€Å"test ad† in an organizer which additionally contains number of â€Å"control ads,† yields different and various â€Å"playbacks† or review information as the primary models of publicizing execution. Such review measures are ordinarily communicated as a level of respondents who can review the brand or potentially item publicized, or pictorial or duplicate parts of a commercial after the envelope of promotions has been seen in the interviewer’s nearness, for a short time interim. These playbacks are generally founded on independent review of the advertisement or promotions being referred to, albeit standard â€Å"prompts† are regularly used to deliver supported review playbacks to enhance those got from independent review. The portfolio technique may likewise include appraisals of the promotions or items publicized

Unknowns

Unknowns 1. When will the snow piles melt? Bragging rights to whoever gets this right. Specifically the snow piles in front of 77 Mass Ave. Once upon a time a few weeks ago, campus was a tame soon-to-be snowmans nest. Killean Court: Now, Im stuck in the AXO house in Boston, where I live. A few weeks ago it looked nice On Saturday there was significantly more snow(View of Cambridge side from Boston) Alternate question: Where did the river go? And now, wellIve been in the house for a while. That is the view from my 4th story room. Serious question, why is there a golden droplet at the end of the icicle? (Fun fact: Icicles form because sunlight shines on snow, it melts, and drips down, but by the time that happens its less so in the sun and re-freezes.) See the building in the picture? Yes. Your eyes do not deceive you. Those are 3-story icicles stemming from the gutters. My guess is going to be May 1. 2. Is that Marco Antonio Solis? I went to a costume party on Halloween hosted by Mujeres Latinas and saw these people. I consider Marco Antonio Solis to be the Mexican version of Chuck Norris. This was admittedly a long time ago, but that encounter made me too happy and sometimes I still wonder. 3. Will humankind prosper? If you thought Halloween was a bit of a late mention, a whole year  ago, Kristine K. 14 secretly wrote Grace, our then graduate RA a couple of urgent letters from her future self. I should have been in Lobby 7 making sure she coughed loudly enough. Did she plant the seeds? If not, I suppose she has been helping the world in other ways. Kristine is in med school now, so if humankind doesnt necessarily prosper, shell be able to help humankind not die? 4. Does a snowman need to have 3 snowball parts for it to be a real snowman? Mystery Hunt = SO MANY UNKNOWNS I had known about mystery hunt since freshman year, but it wasnt until this year that I joined on a team. (And by join a team I mean spend much less than a day out of the three days allocated  attempting to  solve 2/20,000 puzzles.) The winning team of the last years hunt prepares the puzzles and hides a coin somewhere on campus. For some of the puzzles, the first challenge is trying to figure out what kind of a puzzle it even is! After solving a disney music song-themed puzzle, we were asked if we wanted to build a snowman to move on with the puzzle. Which we did. It would have been a trivial task now, but a couple of weeks ago our snowman resources werent as blossoming. and THEN after we had notified them of the completion of the snowman people from the hunts headquarters came to us with a chained up box that we needed to open 0_0 The box contained chocolate coins (which I ate, even though it was probably a puzzle) and YOU GUESSED IT! More. Puzzles. ^+1 to whoever can identify this blogger :) I swear my friends arent weird. Its just that one of the puzzles glowed in the dark! 5. Will there be completely autonomous airliners one day? In October, Aero Astro had a Centennial Symposium, celebrating 100 years of the departments existence. I had lunch with astronauts, and listened to Elon Musk (who as my fellow course 16 Maritsa 16 put it, is cooler than the pope!). Fun Fact: The Aero Astro department at MIT has been involved with every major aerospace acheivement in the history of aerospace. Back to the question, though. Will there be planes that people board with no pilots in them?! As was mentioned in the symposium,  The problem of autonomy is the problem of living in an uncertain world. How do you make systems that are so robust that can handle all kinds of uncertainty, not just limited to natures? How much of the worlds infrastructure will change in another 100 years? How much can it?

Freedom of Religion THe Maryland Toleration Act Essay

Freedom of religion was first applied as a principle in the founding of the Maryland Colony in 1634. The Maryland Toleration Act, drafted by Lord Baltimore, provided: No person or persons...shall from henceforth be any waies troubled, molested or discountenanced for or in respect of his or her religion nor in the free exercise thereof. The Maryland Toleration Act was repealed with the assistance of Protestant assemblymen and a new law barring Catholics from openly practicing their religion was passed. The animosity between Protestants and Catholics in the United States of America, also called ‘American Anti-Catholicism’, resulted from the English Reformation. British colonists were determined to establish a truly reformed church in the†¦show more content†¦The First Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits the making of any law respecting an establishment of religion or impeding the free exercise of religion. Adopted on 15 December 1791, it is one of the ten amendments that constitute the Bill of Rights. Thomas Jefferson wrote of the Catholic Church in France: ‘History, I believe, furnishes no example of a priest-ridden people maintaining a free civil government.’ Jefferson, in his own book of biblical stories, suggested that religion was a set of moral conventions that promoted social harmony. But with antipathy between America’s Protestant and Catholic populations at the time, social harmony had yet to be promoted. Howard Zinn writes that the prejudice apparent in the Civil War period included not only ‘racial hatred for blacks’ and ‘nativist fury against immigrants’, but also ‘religious warfare against Catholics.’ The hostility between Protestants and Catholics in pre-Independence America has survived in the 20th century, albeit in a different form – political partisanship. In one notable example, the former pastor of the East Waynesville Baptist Church in Waynesville, North Carolina ‘told the congregation that anyone who planned to vote for Democratic Senator John Kerry should either leave the church or repent.’ The church later expelled nine members who did vote for Senator Kerry. While the First AmendmentShow MoreRelatedWinthrop s First Governor Of The Massachusetts Bay Colony1142 Words   |  5 Pagestoward social unity ;however, more problems arose within the Massachusetts Bay Colony that the leaders found dangerous to the survival of the colony. Anne Hutchinson Puritanism is a very idealistic and dangerous belief. Some individuals took the religion more serious than others. For example, Anne Hutchinson was a female advocate who stood up to the Puritan court. Hutchinson said, â€Å"that salvation could be earned through good deeds.† Hutchinson argues, â€Å"There was no covenant of works that would saveRead More Democracy Essay715 Words   |  3 PagesBeginning in the early 1600’s, America received a flood of emigrants seeking religious freedom, an escape from political oppression and economic gains. The emergence of Democracy in colonial America can be attributed to the coming about of several institutions and documents. During this time there were governing bodies, which presided over certain colonies, but no unified system. Many of the laws and freedoms that we possess in America today were established based on the trials and the statutes thatRead MoreSouthern Colonies Religion1355 Words   |  6 PagesSouthern Colonies Religion | Southern Colonies claimed to have religious freedom but that tended to be a superficial idea. In these colonies Anglican faith was the most predominate. Anglican included Presbyterian and Baptist. While Protestants were somewhat tolerated most were Anglican. They didn’t really consider Native Americans and slaves religion to be an actual religion. Several people tried to convert slaves and Native Americans to their religion. When slaves began to give in theyRead MoreComparing Colonial Virginia and Colonial New Englands Effect on American Character 651 Words   |  3 PagesI believe colonial New England had more of an effect on the American character than Virginia for several reasons. First they promoted more of the values that have transcended into modern day America such as religious toleration, their educational ideas and their focus on the importance of family. And we shouldn’t forget the fact that the American Revolution began in New England so in ess ence the America we know today would not exist without New England. First off, colonial New England wasRead MoreThe Long Road to Freedom1333 Words   |  5 PagesFreedom Freedom, the power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants without hindrance or restraint. Freedom is more than the power to act, speak, or think as one wants, but it is also the right of one to do anything they please as long as it does not infringe upon another humans rights. Basic freedoms are those such as; freedom of religion, press, speech, assembly, petition, thought, expression, and opinion. These rights are only those given to the Americans through the constitution, butRead MoreThe Impact of Religion on the Development of Colonial America1030 Words   |  5 PagesCompare the ways in which religion shaped the development of colonial society (to 1740) in TWO of the following regions: New England Chesapeake Middle Atlantic The Impact of Religion on the Development of Colonial America During the seventeenth century, colonial America was welcoming many newcomers, several from England. Quantities of these newcomers were seeking land for economic purposes as others were longing for religious toleration. Many of the English colonists settled inRead MoreEssay on Religious Concerns during Colonial Period734 Words   |  3 Pageswho settled in New England came there in search of religious freedom. Their hope was to escape the religious persecution they were facing in England, worship freely, and have the opportunity to choose which religion they wanted to take part in. The Southern colonies were developed for economic motives. They had goals for mercantilism and increasing the prosperity of England. Finally, the Middle colonies were founded upon diverse religions because their primary focus and purpose was to make money orRead MoreThe Colonies by 1763-a New Society?1674 Words   |  7 Pagesown identities and eventually start to become more and more Americanized. Changes in Religion, economics, Politics, and social structures illustrate this Americanization of the transplanted Europeans. By 1763, although some colonies still maintained established churches, other colonies had accomplished a virtual revolution for religious toleration and separation of Church and State. In England religious toleration was out of the question and the Church of England was the only acceptable way of worshipingRead MoreThe American Of The United States1484 Words   |  6 Pagesincluding important English themes. Of these themes, religion, economics, and government are the most essential. People wanted to seek refuge, religious freedom, and economic opportunity. These three themes established the American Dream. Not only did the colonists want this life, they also wanted to have a stable, progressive government, unlike that under the King of England. Many of the colonies, such as Massachusetts, New Haven, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, were originally founded for a religiousRead MoreSeparation From Britain By Thomas Paine1662 Words   |  7 Pagessolve very well like religious toleration and separation from church and state. In the mid 1600 century, Europe was subjugated by Christian principles. The colonies, mainly people in Massachusetts, were refugees escaping Britain’s persecution, which were the Puritan. The Puritans and their government system believe that the religion and political area should be separated. However, as time went on, it was clear that Puritans did not distinct civil matters from religion doctrine. For instance, seeing

Fibre Reinforced Polymers Composites In Strengthening Of Structures - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 17 Words: 4994 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Aim The project aim is to identify the use of FRP (Fibre Reinforced Polymers) composites in strengthening of structures. The general process and methodology considered in achieving this objective is by externally bonding Fibre reinforced plastics to the metal structure/plate and thus testing the specimen under 3 point bend as well as 4 point bend tests. The preliminary report will focus on the project introduction, literature review related to the project topic, project plan and further to be carried out. Analysis of Tasks As mentioned the projectà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s main focus is strengthening of structures. So the question is why is there a need for strengthening of structures? The reason behind the strengthening of structures is that the structure will be able to support greater magnitude of loads than the values for which the structures are originally designed. Strengthening may become necessary in course of time in order to overcome the damage caused due to environmental factors such as corrosion as well as fatigue cracking. The method of bonding reinforcement represents an attractive solution to the problem as it can be achieved with relatively small impact on the structure. The next stage of the preliminary thesis will focus on the literature review. The literature review section is divided in to two sections firstly it will focus on the topics related to the Composite Materials, which will involve the following topics. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Fibre Reinforced Polymers Composites In Strengthening Of Structures" essay for you Create order Definition of Composite Material Classification of Composite Materials Types of Matrix Types of Reinforcement Advantages and Disadvantages of Composite Materials Manufacturing of Composite Materials The next section of the literature review will focus on the topics related to strengthening of structures. For this section following topics will be considered. Different Methods for Structure Strengthening Different Methods for Structure Strengthening using FRP Composites. The preliminary thesis will also look at the comparison between the structural strengthening using FRP Composites and Steel plates. This will help in giving a suitable reason as to why Composites are preferred over Steel plates for structural strengthening. Composites are considered as one of the most promising material for reducing the weight as well as increasing the strength of the material. The theory of hybrid material has been successfully exploited when studying sandwich panel technology. Now the concept of integrated multi materials is extended to a wider variety of structures, components and applications. Fibre reinforced plastics (FRPà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s) have been successfully used for the post strengthening of structures over a number of years. The design and manufacturing of composites has led to its application in variety of industries such as automotive, aerospace, sporting goods, construction and in the marine as well as oil and gas industries. Moreover the method of bonded reinforcements also comes into account when there have been cases where errors in design or construction of a structure have questioned safety aspect. This can be achieved by externally bonding reinforcements at a cost of very small impact to the structures. Project Time-Line (Gantt chart) Literature Review Composite Materials Composite materials also known as composites are defined as a combination of two or more materials to give a unique combination of properties [1]. This definition is very general and thus includes metals, alloys, plastic co-polymers, minerals and wood. A material is only classified as a composite if the material satisfies the following conditions [2]: The material must be manufactured It should consist of two or more physically and/or chemically distinct, suitably arranged or distributed phases with an interface separating them. The characteristics of the composites are not depicted by any of the components in the isolation. Fibre reinforced composite materials differ slightly from the general definition because in this FRP the constituent materials are different at the molecular level and at mechanically separable. However the final material properties of the composite are better in comparison to that of the constituents. The figure 1 below gives a basic idea of how the structure of composite material looks like. The composites can be classified as fibre reinforced, particle reinforced, dispersion strengthened and laminates composites. Figure Structure of Composite Material [https://resources.edb.gov.hk/~s1sci/R_S1Science/sp/en/syllabus/unit14/new/images/s.gif] The composite material consists of two main elements the matrix and reinforcements (fibre). The classification of Composite materials is as shown in figure 2. Composite Materials Matrix Reinforcements Polymer Metal Ceramic Particle Reinforcement Fibre Reinforcement Structural Reinforcement Laminates Long Fibre Short Fibre Preferred Orientation Random Orientation Bidirectional Unidirectional Preferred Orientation Random Orientation Figure Classification of Composite Material Types of Matrix There are three main types of matrix considered when studying composites materials namely Polymer, Metal and Ceramic. Polymer Matrix composites are the most common types of matrix composites. They are also known as FRP (Fibre reinforced polymers). The resin used in here is polymer based combined with a variety of fibres such as Glass, Carbon and Aramid as reinforcements. Metal Matrix Composites are mainly used in the automotive industry. The materials use a metal for example Aluminium as the matrix which is then reinforced with fibres such as silicon carbide. Ceramic Matrix Composites are used in very high temperature environments. This type of materials uses Ceramic as the matrix and the matrix is then reinforced with short fibres such as Silicon Carbide and Boron Nitride. A matrix plays an important role in a Composite structure. There are several functions of Matrix most of which are very important to the satisfactory performance of the structure. The following points outline the important functions of the matrix. The matrix binds the fibre together and thus transfers the load to the fibres. The matrix provides the rigidity and shape to the structure. The matrix isolates the fibres such that each individual fibre can perform separately, due to this crack propagation process slows down. The surface finish quality of the structure is provided by the matrix. The matrix acts as a protection to the reinforced fibres from chemical attack and mechanical wear and tear. The type of material selected as matrix affects the ductility and failure mode of the structure together with the fibreà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s compatibility. Types of Reinforcements The other constituent in the composite material is called the Reinforcement. This gives the composite the necessary strength and stiffness. The structure of the reinforcement is thin rod like. The most commonly used reinforcements are Glass, Carbon, Aramid, and Boron fibres. The diameters of these fibres range from 5 µm to 20  µm. [1] Due to the thin diameter of the fibre, the fibres are flexible and can be formed easily into any shapes. Fibres can come into many forms such as continuous fibre, discontinuous fibre, short fibres, long fibres, organic fibres and inorganic fibres. Fibre brings out the high performance of the material; this is due to three important characteristics of the fibres. The orientation of the fibres also has an impact on the performance of the composite. The fibres can be unidirectional, cross ply or random in its arrangement. Small diameter in comparison to the grain size. As a result of this higher fraction of theoretical strength can be attained. High aspect ratio (length/diameter); this allows a larger amount of load to be transferred. High degree of flexibility. The main functions of fibres are as listed below [1]; To carry the load. Hence fibres are made from materials with high tensile strength and high elastic modulus. Provides strength, stiffness, thermal stability and other structural properties in the composites. Provide electrical conductivity or insulation, depending on the type of fibre used. Advantages of Composites Composites are designed to perform in applications which require lighter weight and higher performance. The advantages of using composites are listed below. High resistance to Corrosion; due to this the application in marine, infrastructure and chemical is very good. High specific stiffness and high specific strength; this gives a weight reduction so is used for the application in aerospace, automotive and manufacturing of sporting goods. The impact resistance is high compared to metal. Higher fatigue strength. Unidirectional carbon/epoxy composites have good fatigue strength of almost 90% of its static strength. Composite materials offer increased amount of design of flexibility. For example the coefficient of thermal expansion of composite can be made zero if suitable constituents and lay up sequence is selected. As the coefficient of thermal expansion is relatively low compared to metals, the composite structure thus provides a good dimensional stability. Also due to the design flexibility, composite materials can be formed into any shapes. Process cycle times and costs are also reduced because of the use of composites in production of net shape and near net shape parts. Composite materials dampen the vibrations an order of magnitude better than metals. Glass reinforced and aramid reinforced composite meet the FAA and JAR requirements for low smoke and toxicity and thus are used in interior panels of aircrafts, stow bins and galley walls. Disadvantages of Composites There will always be limitations to the benefits of the composites. The disadvantages are as listed below. Weaker in transverse direction and low in toughness. Material cost is high compared to that of steel and aluminium. The lack of high volume production limits the wide spread use of composite materials. However this is changing as modern production methods such as Pultrusion, Resin transfer Moulding and other methods have been automated to increase the rate of production. The knowledge through books and database is limited when comes to designing parts with composite. Composites absorb moisture, which affects the properties and dimensional stability of the composite. Difficult to join together with other material due to its anisotropic properties and high sensitivity to damage. For example when drilling holes for mechanical fastening. Brittle like behaviour. Difficult to repair as most composites use thermo set matrices that can not be re shaped. On the contrary thermoplastics can be repaired how ever they are rare [4]. Solvent resistance, chemical resistance and environmental stress cracking of composite depend on the properties of polymers. Some polymers have low resistance to the solvents and environmental stress cracking[1]. Manufacturing of Composite Materials Before looking into manufacturing of composite materials; it is important to look at manufacturing of fibre performs briefly. Fibre performs is how fibre are manufactured before being bonded to the matrix to form a composite material. Fibre performs are often manufactured in sheets or filaments in case of spraying applications. The fibre manufacturing process is carried out by adopting the technique used in textile industry. The techniques used are weaving, knitting, braiding and stitching [5]. The manufacturing process of composite material in general can be divided into two main processes. Prepreg Moulding Wet Moulding PrepReg Moulding The process of prepreg moulding can be further categorized as: Bladder Moulding Compression Moulding Autoclave/Vacuum bag Moulding Mandrel Wrapping [6]Bladder Moulding: In this process the sheets of prepreg material are laid up and placed in female style mould along with a balloon like bladder. The mould is then closed and placed in the heated press. Eventually, the bladder is pressurized which then forces the layers of material against mould walls. The part is then cured and removed from the hot mould. The process is ideally suited for complex hollow shapes. Also the process has great cost to performance balance. Typical example of equipment using bladder moulding technique is the manufacturing of tennis racquet. Average cure cycle range is 15-60 minutes. Compression Moulding: A process where a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“performà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? or à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“chargeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? of single moulding compound (SMC) or bulk moulding compound (BMC) or sometimes prepreg fabric is placed in the mould cavity. Once the mould is closed, the material is compacted and cured inside by heat and pressure. The process also offers excellent detailing for geometric shapes. The average cure cycle range is 2-20 minutes. The tooling is process is often more expensive. Auto Clave/Vacuum Bag Moulding: The figure below gives an idea of vacuum bagging for prepreg lay-up process. Figure Vacuum bagging for prepreg lay up process [https://www.highcomp.no/design/bilder/vacum/vacum.gif] Once all the prepregs are laid out in the desired sequence, vacuum bagging preparations are set up as per the figure 3 for curing of the part. First step is application of release film on the top of all the prepreg. The release film is a perforated film that allows captured air, excess resin and volatiles to escape. Secondly is the application of bleeder on top of release film; it is a porous fabric that absorbs moisture and excess resin coming from stack of prepregs/laminates. Thirdly is the application of non porous and non-perforated film on top of bleeder. After this a breather layer is applied; this is a porous fabric which creates even pressure around the part and at the same time allowing air and volatiles to escape. Then final layer is of vacuum bag. The vacuum bag is an expendable polyamide film. The film is sealed on all sides of laminate using a seal tape. A nozzle is inserted into the vacuum bag and is then connected to hose vacuum pump for creating vacuum. Mandrel Wrapping: In these process sheets of prepreg material is wrapped around steel or aluminium mandrel. The prepreg material is compacted by nylon or polypropylene cello tape. Parts are cured by hanging in the oven. Once the curing process is completed, the cello and mandrel are removed which results in a hollow carbon tube. Advantages of prepreg lay up process are that it is simple process when manufacturing complex parts. Also strong and stiff parts can be fabricated using this process. Also allows production of high fibre volume fraction. Prepregs usually have more than 60% fibre volume fraction. Limitations of the process being that labour is intensive as a result of which the process is not suitable for high volume production applications. Also parts manufactured by this process are very expensive. Wet Moulding Wet moulding process can be divided into following processes. Wet layup Spray Up process Filament winding Pultrusion Resin transfer Moulding (RTM) Resin transfer moulding under vacuum (VARTM) Wet Lay-up: in this process a fabric is placed in open mould which is then hand saturated with wet resin. The curing occurs normally at room temperature. However it can be cured at higher temperatures based on the heat resistance of the mould. The advantage of this process is that the material cost and tooling cost is low. Because of this the process is considered as low tech process. Spray-up process: The processing steps are similar to that of the wet lay-up process except for the method of creating the laminates. The basic steps are as follows [1]. The mould is waxed and polished for easy de-moulding Gel coat is applied to the mould surface and allowed to harden before building any other layer. The barrier coat is applied to avoid fibre print through the gel coat surface. Oven curing of barrier coat. Mixing of resin with fillers and the mixture is then pumped to a holding tank. Spraying of resin, catalyst and chopped fibres on the mould surface. This is done with the aid of hand held spray gun. The spraying is carried out in typical pattern to create uniform thickness of the laminate. A roller is then used in order to make the fibre and resin material compact as well as create a smooth and even surface. The laminate is then cured in the oven. The part is then de-moulded and sent for finishing work. The process of spray lay-up is very economical, maximizes the use of low cost tooling as well as low cost material systems however it is not suitable for making parts that have high structure requirements, fibre volume fraction can be difficult to control as well as the thickness. The surface finish on both the sides is not same. Also dimensional tolerance is poor. Filament Winding: This is a process in which resin-impregnated fibres are pulled and wound over a rotating mandrel at desired angle. The fibre pulled is from a wet bath of resin. Curing occurs at room temperature or higher temperature. The performance is limited and it is difficult to obtain uniform fibre distribution and resin content through out the thickness of the laminate. The process is very suitable for tubular parts such as pressure vessels. Figure Filament Winding Process [https://www.thaicomposites.com/images/filament-winding.gif] The advantages of this process being its ability to utilize low cost raw material and low cost tooling systems. It can be automated for the production of high volume composite parts. The figure 4 gives an indication of the filament winding process. Pultrusion: As the name suggests, it is a process which will have pulling and extrusion (cutting). In this process resin impregnated fibres are pulled through to make a part. Saturated material is pulled through a heated closed die and cured while continuously moving through the die. The figure 5 gives an indication of the process. Figure Pultrusion process [https://www.ultrafiberglass.com/pultrusion%20process.jpg] The advantage of pultrusion process is that it is a continuous process and can be completely automated to get the finished product. The process is suitable for making high volume composite parts. Utilizes low cost fibre and resin systems thus provide a low production cost of products. The limitations being that the thin wall parts, tapered and complex parts cannot be produced. Resin Transfer Moulding A resin and catalyst are placed in two separate tanks A and B. A release agent such as gel coat is then applied to mould for good surface finish. The preform is placed inside the mould and the mould is then clamped. The mould is then heated to a specified temperature. Mixed Resin is then injected at selected temperature and pressure. Vacuum is also created to remove air bubbles as well as assist in resin flow. The injection continues until the mould is completely filled. The vacuum is turned off. The pressure inside the mould is increased to ensure that remaining porosity is collapsed. After curing for certain period of time depending on resin, the composite part is removed from mould. In this process, fabrics are placed in to a mould and then wet resin is injected. Resin is pressurized and is then forced into the cavity which is under vacuum. In the VARTM process resin is completely pulled in to cavity under vacuum. This moulding process allows precise tolerance and detailed shaping, however this may result in at times failure to fully saturate fabric leading to weak shape in the final product. The figure and steps following the figure describe the process. Figure Resin Transfer Moulding [https://www.ctihuatai.com/index.files/rtmstatic.gif] Strengthening of Structures The next stage of literature review will now focus on the strengthening of structures. As explained earlier the need for strengthening of structures; it is important to look at first the different methods adopted in order to strengthen the structure. The structure strengthening methods include the following. Span Shortening Pre-stressed Concrete Section Enlargement Structure Strengthening using FRP Composites. Span Shortening This is method in which length of a beam is shortening. This is achieved by installing additional supports underneath the existing members. Materials used in this process are mainly structural steel members and cast in place reinforced concrete members. The members are connected mechanically using bolts and adhesive anchors. Span shortening reduces the deflection in the beam. This can be proved by means of simple calculation. P1ÃŽÂ ´1 Let us consider a beam of length à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“L (m)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? under a load P kN undergoing a 3 point bend test. l1 Where ÃŽÂ ´ is the deflection in the beam. Let us consider a pair of equations in order to calculate deflection in the beam. ; If ratio of the deflection is taken in to account, and doubling the span length meaning l2 = 2l1. Then, Then ÃŽÂ ´2 = 8 x ÃŽÂ ´1; this means that central deflection will become 8 times. So to conclude the method shorter the span, less deflection will occur at the centre. Pre stressed Concrete Pre stressed concrete is a method used for overcoming concreteà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s natural weakness in tension. Pre-stressing tendons generally made of high tensile steel rods are used to provide clamping load that generates compressive stresses which balances out the tensile stress that would be experienced by the concrete beams due to bending [7]. The process of pre stressing can be achieved in three ways: pre tensioned concrete, bonded or un-bonded post-tensioned concrete. However the method is mainly used for civil engineering and construction projects. The figure below gives an indication of the method. Figure Pre Stressing Method [https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/BRIDGE/pt/images/pt102.gif] Section Enlargement In simple terms, it is when the second moment of area is changed. The method involves placing an additional bonded reinforcement concrete to an existing structure member in the form of an overlay or a jacket. The main advantage of this technique is that it increases the load bearing capacity or stiffness. The technique reduces bending and shear forces on overstressed beams. Structure Strengthening using FRP Composites Fibre reinforced polymers are applied to strengthen structure. There method can be primarily divided in to two categories. One is the strengthening of structure at manufacturing phase and other is after manufacturing. The technique used to strengthen structure at manufacturing phase is known as Near Surface Mounted Reinforcement (NSMR) and the strengthening of structure can be achieved once the manufacturing is completed is by external plate bonding method. Near Surface Mounted Reinforcement Near surface mounted reinforcement is one of the latest and most promising techniques to be considered when strengthening concrete structures. Using FRP instead of steel in this technique has many advantages such as its better resistance to corrosion, quick and easy installation due to light weight. When compared with external bonding method, the NSMR has many advantages such as amount of site installation work is reduced for example removal of plaster, etc. second advantage being that NSMR is less prone to de-bonding from concrete substrate. NSMR bars can be easily anchored into adjacent members to prevent failures due to de-bonding. This feature is very important when considering flexural strengthening. NSMR bars can be easily pre-stressed. As the bars are covered by cover of concrete, so they are less exposed to accidental impact or mechanical damage such as fire or wear and tear. As the NSMR technique is new, the knowledge on this technique is limited than that of externally bonded reinforcement. In recent studies CFRP (carbon fibre reinforced polymer) NSM reinforcements have been widely used to strengthen structures. The following general steps must be performed during the strengthening. Sawing up slots in concrete cover, depth of the structure is dependent on the product used. After sawing of slots, careful cleaning is required. If using an epoxy system, the slots where the bars are to be installed must be dry before bonding. If cement system is used then the surface must be wet. Adhesive is applied in the slot when using epoxy system or cement mortar is used when using cement system. The figure below gives an indication of the technique. Figure Near Surface mounted Reinforcement technique [https://msw.mcmaster.ca/~koranyy/Photos/NSM-vertical.jpg] In the above figure it can be seen that a carbon fibre rope is placed in the centre of the brick wall and an epoxy paste is applied. The figure on the left is for vertical reinforcement and the figure on the right is for horizontal reinforcement. The second part of the images is the finished version of structure once the method is completed. The application of this technique is mainly on flat surfaces and is suitable for strengthening in bending. The process is also helpful in increasing the shear capacity of the beams. The next method considered for structure strengthening using FRP composites is external plate bonding. However it is first important to compare the advantage of using composites over steel plates. These are explained in the next segment of the report. External Plate Bonding The general principle of external plate bonding method is that in this method transfer of stresses takes place from the structural element to the additional plates that are adhered or bolted. Whilst strengthening structure many problems are faced such as. Load Increases: Structure with externally bonded plates has capacity to accept higher live loads for example in factories where heavy machines are installed. External plate bonding also reduces deformation and is also helpful where vibrations are an issue. Damage to Structural Parts: it can be utilized in cases where the building has been damaged due to fire or vehicle collision. Improvement in suitability: This can be achieved by limiting deflection and reducing crack widths and stresses. Modification of Structural System: Plate bonding provides a cost effective solution where structure has been weakened by removal of walls and columns or opening cuts. Errors in planning or construction: Plate bonding provides solution to earlier design errors and calculation errors. In general terms external plate bonding can reduce deflection thus limit cracking as well as increase the load bearing capacity and also increase the flexural strength and finally improve resistance to shear in certain cases. As the method of plate bonding can be achieved by both using Composites as well as steel plates so it is important to understand the advantage of composite over steel plates. This analysis will be carried on three grounds namely technical, practical/application and Economic. The table on the next page summarizes the technical differences between the composite and steel plates Composite Steel Plates High tensile strength of Carbon fibre (5650N/mm2) Tensile strength of steel is (235 N/mm2) No corrosion Highly prone to corrosion Strength to weight ratio is higher Strength to weight ratio is lower Table Technical differences between Composite and Steel Plates When performing practical application on site; installation of steel plates requires an extensive amount of work such as drilling holes in plates, wrapping plates and bolting the plates. Where as the composite plates would require very limited work such as bonding to the metal plate using an epoxy. Table 2 summarizes the economic differences Potential Cost Composite Steel Plates High Low Volume Typically 10-50% of steel Relatively high Adhesive smaller area of plates required so less adhesive Area of plates is high so higher amount of adhesive Preparation Off site On site Limited Limited Extensive Extensive Labour Requirement Low High Equipment Low High Temporary support None Yes Time Fast Slow Table Economic Differences between Composite and steel plates The application of the plates externally can be varying such as if the surface is horizontal than FRP is applied horizontally or in the U shape. If the structure is a circular column then FRP is applied by wrapping around it. Wrapping sheets have fabrics in same direction or bi-directional. One thing to be considered when using FRP is that it needs to be protected from fire. An FRP plate applied to the bottom of structure (tension face) increases the strength of beam and reduces deflection. Where as application of FRP strips attached in U shape around the sides and bottom of beam increases shear resistance. Wrapping of sheets around column results in higher strength and restrains lateral expansion of columns. The figures below give an example of application of FRP composite to structure. (A) (B) (C) Figure Strengthening using FRP Composites [https://sites.google.com/site/frpstrengthening/frpdrawing2-custom-size-398-103.jpg] [https://www.structural.net/Article_Images/Figure%204.JPG] Figure A and B look at plate bonding and figure C gives an indication of wrapping columns. Discussion The project is currently in its research phase. The topics covered in the literature review section of the report are vital as it is important to gain knowledge about the subject and understand its applications in the real engineering world. The future work in the project will involve an additional literature review for structural strengthening and the next stage will be to set up a meeting with the supervisor to discuss the experiment as to what needs to be performed. Once this is completed the project plan will be reviewed to meet the final submission date of the thesis as mentioned earlier in the deliverables section. To conclude the test to be carried out for this purpose will be a 3 point bend test and 4 point bend test and thus the results will be concluded. Bibliography Dag Linghoff (2009), Thin Walled Structures, Carbon-fibre Composites for strengthening steel structures, volume 47 pages 1048-1058. U.Meier (1995), Construction and Building Materials, Strengthening of structures using carbon fibre epoxy composites, volume 9 issue 6 pages 341-351. A.R.Rahai and M.M.Alinia (2008), Construction and Building Materials, Performance Evaluation and Strengthening of concrete structures with composite bracing members, volume 22 issue 10 pages 2100-2110 J.G.Broughton (1997), International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives, Carbon fibre reinforced plastic(CFRP) strengthening of aluminium extrusions volume 17 issue 3 pages 269-278 Osman Hag Elsafi (2001), Composite Structures, Application of FRP laminates for strengthening of reinforced concrete T-beam bridge structure, volume 52 issue 3-4 pages 453-466 R El-Hacha (2001), Progress in Structural Engineering and Materials, Pre-stressed fibre reinforced polymer laminates for strengthening structures volume 3 issue 2 pages 111-121 [Internet] available at https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pse.76/abstract accessed on 22nd November 2010. C.Soutis (2005), Progress in Aerospace Sciences, Fibre reinforced composites in aircraft construction, volume 41 pages 143-151. Kris Brosens, Omar Ahmed, Dionys Van Gemert, Strengthening of Concrete structure with externally bonded reinforcement, [internet] available at www.kuleuven.be/bwk/materials/Publications//KB-IC002-Hawaii-2001 accessed on 22nd November 2010. Bjorn Taljsten, (2003) Construction and Building Materials, Strengthening concrete beams for shear with CFRP sheets volume 17pages 15-26. Mark Shaw, Structural Strengthening with External Plate Bonding [Internet] available at www.bath.ac.uk/cwct/cladding_org/icbest97/paper24.pdf accessed on 19 November 2010 L. De Lorenzis and J.G.Teng (2007) Composites Part B: Engineering, Near Surface Mounted FRP Reinforcement: An emerging technique for strengthening structures volume 38 pages 119-143 [Internet] available at www.sciencedirect.com accessed on 19 November 2010. Mr H.Nordin, Prof B. Taljsten and Tech Lic.A.Carolin, Department of Civil Engineering, Lulea University of Technology, CFRP Near Surface Mounted Reinforcement for pre-stressing concretes available at https://www.quakewrap.com/frp%20papers/CFRP-Near-Surface-Mounted-Reinforcement-(NSMR)-For-Pre-Stressing-Concrete-Beams.pdf accessed on 19 November 2010.

The Real All Americans Free Essays

The Real All Americans combines the tales of two merging chapters in American history, a time when football is leaping out of the dirt, and the Western Frontier is disappearing. The book reads like a â€Å"who’s who† of history. It also introduces us to and establishes Olympian Jim Thorpe, a multi-sport player once considered the world’s greatest athlete, and legendary coach, Glenn â€Å"Pop† Warner. We will write a custom essay sample on The Real All Americans or any similar topic only for you Order Now Abolitionist Harriet Beecher Stowe, Indian War Chief Sitting Bull and future president Dwight D. Eisenhower also play significant roles in the book. Author Sally Jenkins weaves a history lesson together beginning with a bloody massacre in 1866 and bookends the tale with a battle on the football field in 1912, Indians versus the Army. In 1866, members of the Sioux, Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes lured the U. S. military into a trap. It proved a fierce and violent coup to ward off annexation of their land. Chieftain American Horse slit someone’s throat in the battle, and other natives removed scalps then gallantly rode home to brag of their victory. The Indians won the battle that day but not the war. Despite their recalcitrant stance against the expansion of the U. S. Territory, change was coming. American Horse nearly decapitated a man to display his staunch opposition against being forced into a reservation. He would later buy a suit from Saks and send nearly a dozen of his offspring to a U. S. government run boarding school. To demonstrate the transitory times the country faced, Jenkins masterfully walks us through history. By 1890, the first Transcontinental Railroad is completed. It runs through once serene land the natives called home. The tracks have dissected their frontier, carving out even smaller allotments then what the government issued to the natives. The infamous â€Å"cowboys and Indians† battles have nearly disappeared like the Western frontier. At this time, football began to take hold of the American psyche. The brutality of the sport provided a new outlet for men to showboat their masculinity. America is at a crossroads. It knows it must live amongst the natives, the people whose land the government has taken. American leaders know some of the Indians will seek to live outside of the oppressive conditions of the reservations. They question how they will live civilly with the â€Å"savages†. Fighting is no longer the answer. Assimilation becomes the solution. But it is not fully embraced by either side. Did natives have the mental capacity to â€Å"learn the way of the white man†? Indians feared losing their centuries old mores. Army officer and abolitionist Richard H. Pratt sought the government’s approval to launch the social experiment. He had what he believed to be success in absorbing and â€Å"curing† the hardest of Indian resisters when he ran a military prison in Florida. Pratt opened The Carlisle Indian School in Carlisle, Pennsylvania hoping to strike gold again. He Christianized the students and cut their hair to make them similar to the white man. While Pratt’s legacy is mixed, Jenkins makes it clear that the superintendent is fond of the students he recruited and treated them like he would his own children. Jenkins eloquently illustrates how this experiment is not without heartache and failure. For every handful of children that willingly assimilate, at least one native revolts, runs away or returns home scared and confused. Pratt thought abandoning their native tongue, denouncing violence and learning how to eat with a fork and spoon were the only ways American society would accept Indians. A student named Plenty Horse returned to his reservation with one mission, to wipe the stain of Carlisle from his character. He killed an innocent American military member to impress his tribe. Pratt would argue he had more success stories than accounts of failure, and he attributes that the football team he begrudgingly allowed on campus. The mortal combat-like sport had captivated the nation, and Carlisle men caught the fever too. Pratt repeatedly denied his men a chance to compete telling them they would face more humiliation if they signed up to take the brutal beatings Ivy League teams loved doling out. The Carlisle Indians had the weight of a race on their scrawny shoulders, Pratt said. Their losses would be exaggerated and their wins downplayed. But his boys did not care. In 1895, Pratt relented and granted the men permission to play on one condition; they had to leave the violence up to the other teams because the Indians were already perceived as savages. That condition was the driving force behind the Indians’ desires to play. They wanted a chance to prove they were not savages or mentally inferior to their Ivy League counterparts. Within a year of playing the Indians embarked on an unprecedented feat, they played Harvard, Princeton, Yale and Penn consecutively. At that time in history, that would be considered a mortally dangerous schedule. Football did not have the regulations that govern it today. In 1905, the football field saw 146 deaths. Huge wedges of men would run at each other, pick up running backs and throw them, and break legs, noses and necks. The physical prowess of the other teams did not frighten Carlisle. The opposing teams grinned every time they kicked an Indian; the Indians were only allowed to grin when they got kicked. The Carlisle Indians put up a valiant effort against the big four but lost all of the games, however that is attributed to several blatantly bad calls. The team almost upset Yale, but a referee called back what would have been the winning touchdown. It was so bad, the next day the White press wrote, â€Å"Carlisle proved it could beat 11 young Yale men, but not 11 young Yale men and a referee†. While the rag-tag team of players enjoyed several glowing reviews over the decades, the Carlisle men felt like they were denied proper credit. A large portion of the press would attribute their victories to their White Yale coaches. Their losses, on the other hand were the inevitable evidence of their â€Å"Indian character flaws†. Despite the humiliating obstacles the team faced, the Indians progressively got better, thanks in part to the hiring of Glenn â€Å"Pop† Warner, a real gamesman. He had a taste for gambling but an even larger appetite for experimental plays and encountered equal minds when he coached the Indians. They too wanted to play the game their own way and outwit their opponents. They changed the game when they started running around teams instead of through them, a sight no one and witnessed at that time. Carlisle started the first trick plays, hiding the ball, and they dominated the field when the forward pass was made legal. No one could stop Jim Thorpe, except Jim Thorpe. Warner said his carelessness and laziness led to losses in games the team had nearly sealed up as victories. Thorpe briefly left the school to pursue his love of baseball, which would later lead to him being stripped of the gold medals he won at the Stockholm Olympics. Warner convinced his star to return to school for one final battle, the 1912 game against the U. S. Army, a team that had nine future generals on its roster. A young Dwight D. Eisenhower was in the backfield. In the locker room, Warner reminded his team of â€Å"Wounded Knee† and all of the other atrocities committed against their tribes. This was their time for revenge he harped. They could wage war on the football field instead of the battlefield. Of course the cadets were favored to win. Rooting against them would be â€Å"Un-American†. Army had caught up to the Ivy League teams, and was in the midst of a four-year stretch in which they built a record of 28-5-1. The game had national implications for both teams. Army had lost only once that season, to Yale (6-0). A win over Carlisle would catapult Army to a number one ranking. The emotional and practical stakes were obvious for the Indians. The game represented their continual fight for respect. They were clearly the best offense in the country, but commentators continued to mark them with an asterisk as if they were less than a real college team. The Indians were ready for war. They graced the field with sleek formations. Several fast forward passes combined with trick plays tomahawked the Army. Final score, 26-7. They did not just change football; they slowly changed the misconceptions of Indians. They stood up to humiliation and mockery with grace and dignity. They took beat downs and grinned, leaving spectators to question just who the â€Å"savages† really were. They claimed many victories over Ivy League schools stocked with players who descended from men who stole the Carlisle Indians’ Land. They proved they were the Real All Americans. But their celebration would be short-lived. The team nearly imploded after the win, and Warner found himself coaching a team that no longer respected him. Thorpe had been outed as a â€Å"professional† because he played baseball for money, and he lost his gold medals. Warner knew all along what Thorpe had done, but he acted as if he had no clue. That enraged the Carlisle team, and members wrote Congress and also divulged details of Warner paying his athletes. Warner was later asked to resign. Outside forces also erased Carlisle’s place in the history books as well. America was undergoing yet another transformation. The public now believed it was wrong to have taken natives from their homes to place them in far-away boarding schools. It was time to end the â€Å"experiment†. The little support Carlisle had left had faded. Pratt was long gone. Weaker leaders replaced him and none had a desire and commitment to the natives like Pratt. By 1918, The Carlisle Indian School had closed. How to cite The Real All Americans, Papers

Christmas in Australia free essay sample

Christmas In Australia What do you think of when you think about Christmas? Snow, cold weather, ice, cool breezes? Not in Australia! During the month of December, its summer. Due to Australia being on the southern hemisphere, in December, the earth tilts to the side of which it faces the sun. That means that for Australians, Christmas is hot, sunny, and filled with amazing summer breezes. Jackets wont be needed anymore, in that hot climate, majority of the people are wearing light clothing, including shorts, t-shirts, and sandals. Australia is its own continent, even though it is filled with other ethnicities around the world, English is the official language. The capital of Australia is Canberra, which is located somewhat near the coast. In Australia, about seventy percent of the population are Christians. Summer is from December through February, unlike the United States. When it comes to Christmas, Australians know how to celebrate. We will write a custom essay sample on Christmas in Australia or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page There are many forms of entertainment during this time of year. Popular activities and celebrations include picnics, going to parades, playing cricket, going for a swim, or attending Carols by Candlelight. Melbourne is a city in Australia, located in the south-eastern part of the mainland , within the state of Victoria. Melbourne is also the city in which Carols by Candlelight takes place. This event takes place on Christmas Eve night, where thousands of people spread blankets on the ground, and sing Christmas carols together. Christmas in Australia has many similarities to the United States. Santa Claus is known as Santa, or Father Christmas. Christams takes place on the twenty-fifth of December, and lasts for only one day. Both countries put up decorations, such as Christmas Trees, figurines for outdoors, candles, etc. Gifts are exchanged, Santa arrives, and the birth of Jesus is celebrated. Some differences would be on how Santa is pictured. Most children picture Santa Claus in heavy clothing and big boots riding inside of a sleigh. In Australia, hes pictured in a swimsuit on a surfboard, surfing the waves under the hot summer sun. On Christmas Eve, the children put pillowcases on their bed, waiting for Santa to leave small gifts inside of them, and big gifts under the tree. Unlike the United states, where instead of pillowcases, stockings are used by the fireplace. Instead of leaving milk and cookies, Australians leave Santa sherry and mince pies for him when he arrives. The next morning, the presents are unwrapped, and Christmas Day begins. In Australia, the daily diet consists of meat, but there is a substantial number of vegans and vegetarians, so vegetables are also included. On Christmas, the foods eaten would most likely be seafood, cold ham, turkey, and salad. Popular drinks consumed include coffee, champagne (instead of eggnog), and other alcoholic beverages such as wine. On Christmas Day, after unwrapping the gifts, families usually head for the beach. Picnics are usually held, especially barbeques. After the day is done, people wake up bright and early to hit the stores on Boxing Day, the twenty-sixth of December, when most stores have sales on items for customers to purchase after the Christmas holiday. Although Australians participate in all these fun activities, they still know the true reason for the holiday. They conisder it a time for remembering Jesus Christ. Together, families celebrate the importance of the birth of Jesus, and the spiritual meaning of Christmas by joyfully opening their hearts to God along with opening gifts given and recieved.

X

X-mas Essay To me Christmas is a celebration, which includes spending time with my family, decorating the entire house, inside and out, and shopping, for the people I love. Doing this with the people I love is what means the most to me. Spending Christmas with my family is very important to me. We usually gather and celebrate at my parents house, in East Tennessee. My husband, our three children, and myself travel from California. My two sisters, their husbands, and children come from a nearby town, for our celebration. We spend the day baking cookies, making fudge and preparing a big Christmas dinner, with all the trimmings. The children love to see each other. They spend the day playing games and sharing their new gifts and toys that Santa Claus brought for each of them. They get so eager to decorate, that it is hard to restrain them. We will write a custom essay on X-mas specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Decorating for Christmas is so much fun. My father always draws a new background scenery, for the Nativity scene, that he displays, every year. He, my brother-in-laws and my husband start with the decorations for the outside of the house and the front yard. Every year, my parents add a little more to the outside decorations. My mom, sisters, our children and myself decorate the inside of the house. My mom has so many indoor decorations that they can not all possibly be displayed. We try to change the decorations, which we put out every year. The men finish up just about the same time as, we women and then it is time to decorate the tree together. The children love this the most. The tree is always real, and is usually six to seven feet tall. Most of the ornaments have been collected over the years and are very old. They have become real family treasures. We all have a favorite one that we each put on the tree. All the children put their First Christmas ornament on the tree, that I br ought, as a gift. I am not usually a shopper, but during the Christmas season, I actually enjoy shopping. I rarely go into department stores, but during the Christmas season, I love to shop. The stores are so beautifully decorated and very festive. I can easily get carried away, with spending so much money. I must admit the thought of spending too much money hardly comes to mind. I can just picture of look on the faces, of my family and that brings me so much joy. Some, gifts I have picked out and purchased months ahead of time, either through catalogs, or shopping a little early, when stores have sales. Others, I struggle to decide what gift to purchase, even up to the very last minute possible. One thing is for certain, by the time my shopping is done, I am exhausted, but happy and excited, about Christmas. I feel so fortunate, to have my family throughout the year, but especially, at Christmas time. When showing, my family just how much I love them and what exactly they mean to me. That is so very important to me. Christmas, for me is about being with family, loving each other and showing each other just exactly how we all feel.

Free Essays on Emily Griersons Friends And Foes

Emily Grierson’s Friends and Foes Emily Grierson’s closest companion can unknowingly be her own worst enemy. Whether it is a girlfriend, boyfriend, parent, or sibling, one can never know who is trying to bestow evil on her. Emily always has enemies lurking around in the shadows somewhere and for some reason. In William Faulkner’s â€Å"A Rose for Emily,† enemies are found throughout the main character’s entire life. Emily Grierson is victimized by those who should have cared most for her. Emily’s father is the first to be misleading to her in her life. Her father thinks that â€Å"none of the young men [are] quite good enough for Miss Emily†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (7). Emily feels differently about the young men, but her father never allows her to have any boyfriend. Everyone â€Å"†¦remembered all the young men her father had driven away†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (7). Therefore when Emily finally gets herself a boyfriend, she doesn’t want to let him go. Homer Barron is Emily’s first real boyfriend. No one in the town can believe she would â€Å"†¦ think seriously of a Northerner, a day laborer† (7). Homer is also someone who deceives Emily. Not only does he use her just for his satisfaction while he is in town, he lets the whole town know about it. Homer makes a mockery of Emily at the Elk’s Club with the younger men. Then the whole town believes that Homer and Emily are going to marry, until he tells everybody that â€Å"†¦ he is not the marrying kind† (8). Coleman 2 When Emily and Homer’s relationship ends, she doesn’t even have any friends to rely on. The women of the town aren’t very helpful in Emily’s time of need. When her father dies they don’t even feel true pity for her for the loss of her father, â€Å"they pity Miss Emily [because she is] left alone [and now] has to be humanized† (7). Instead of offering condolences out of the kindness of their hearts, the ladies only offer it because it is their custom. When Emil... Free Essays on Emily Grierson's Friends And Foes Free Essays on Emily Grierson's Friends And Foes Emily Grierson’s Friends and Foes Emily Grierson’s closest companion can unknowingly be her own worst enemy. Whether it is a girlfriend, boyfriend, parent, or sibling, one can never know who is trying to bestow evil on her. Emily always has enemies lurking around in the shadows somewhere and for some reason. In William Faulkner’s â€Å"A Rose for Emily,† enemies are found throughout the main character’s entire life. Emily Grierson is victimized by those who should have cared most for her. Emily’s father is the first to be misleading to her in her life. Her father thinks that â€Å"none of the young men [are] quite good enough for Miss Emily†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (7). Emily feels differently about the young men, but her father never allows her to have any boyfriend. Everyone â€Å"†¦remembered all the young men her father had driven away†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (7). Therefore when Emily finally gets herself a boyfriend, she doesn’t want to let him go. Homer Barron is Emily’s first real boyfriend. No one in the town can believe she would â€Å"†¦ think seriously of a Northerner, a day laborer† (7). Homer is also someone who deceives Emily. Not only does he use her just for his satisfaction while he is in town, he lets the whole town know about it. Homer makes a mockery of Emily at the Elk’s Club with the younger men. Then the whole town believes that Homer and Emily are going to marry, until he tells everybody that â€Å"†¦ he is not the marrying kind† (8). Coleman 2 When Emily and Homer’s relationship ends, she doesn’t even have any friends to rely on. The women of the town aren’t very helpful in Emily’s time of need. When her father dies they don’t even feel true pity for her for the loss of her father, â€Å"they pity Miss Emily [because she is] left alone [and now] has to be humanized† (7). Instead of offering condolences out of the kindness of their hearts, the ladies only offer it because it is their custom. When Emil...

Family law Scenario analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Family law Scenario analysis - Essay Example Family law Task 1 - Using relevant statutory provisions and case law, analyse scenario 1: Assess the legal validity of any possible claim against Gail’s estate and applying legal provisions, illustrate how her estate would be disposed of. Task 2 - Using relevant statutory provisions and case law, analyse scenario 2: Identify any possible claimants on Peggy’s estate under the Inheritance (Provision for Family and Dependants) Act 1975 and assess the likelihood of success each claimant would have in receiving a payment from the estate. Task 3 - In relation to the two scenarios, critically comment upon the ability of the law to interfere with a testator/testatrix’s last wishes. Task 1 In order to check the legal validity of any claim against the estate of Gail, it would be necessary to refer primarily to the will that Gail prepared. In terms of the will’s validity, no doubts can exist. In accordance with the s9 of the Wills Act 1837 ‘no will shall be valid unless it is in writing and signed by the testator or by some other person in his presence and by his direction’. The will of Gail is signed by her; the text of the will contains the phrase ‘Signed by the said Testator,†¦, in the presence of us’, a phrase that verifies the fact that the will was signed before the witnesses, so no doubt in regard to the will’s validity exists. In other words, the will of Gail is valid being aligned with the relevant provisions of the law, as described above. At the next level, the text of the will should be reviewed for judging whether Gail assets would be distributed in accordance with the will, or whether her estate will fall under intestacy. In other words, it should be made clear whether the will has been revoked or not. Gail prepared the will in December 2010. At that time, Gail had already taken a divorce from Brian, as assumed by the fact that when Martin proposed to her, the processes of the divorce were over. It should be mentioned that after the divorce, Gail bought a house the value of which has been estimated to ?225,000. Also, in July 2010, Gail had inherited a sum of ?150,000 from her father. In other words, the value of Gail’s estate, i.e. the inherited assets, can be estimated to ?375,000. In terms of the will’s validity, the following issues should be mentioned: in accordance with the UK law, a will is automatically revoked if a marriage takes place (s 18(1) of Wills Act 1837). This means that the will of Gail could be possibly considered as revoked. The section 18(3) of the 1837 Act notes that the will may not be revoked after the marriage in case that the testator has made clear within the will that he is going to marry to a particular person and that he wishes that the will remains effective after the marriage. Gail added such term within her will, without, however, specifying the person that she was going to be married. In this context, her will should be considered as revoked. As a result, those who were entitled under the will would receive nothing, with reference particularly to Gail’s best friend, Claire Peacock, but also Blanche Tilsley. The gifts which were, in accordance with the will, would be given to the above persons, will be incorporated in Gail’s estate and will be distributed using the intestacy rules and the right of the surviving spouse. As for David and Sharah, who were also mentioned in the will, they will not inherit the rest of Gail’s esta te, but they will share, along with Nicholas, the remaining part of the estate of ?62,500, after deducting the right of the surviving spouse, as described below. At this point it should be mentioned that Sharah would not inherit since she dies in the car accident, along with Gail; however, Sharah has a daughter, Bethany, who would inherit as the grand daughter of Gail. Under these terms, the estate of Gail would be distributed among the beneficiaries, using the Administration of Estates Act 1925, as containing the rules related to the surviving spouse rights, and the Law Reform (Succession Act) 1995, which includes the

Gulf War Oil Spill of 1991 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Gulf War Oil Spill of 1991 - Essay Example Whereas various economic costs are comparatively not that difficult to approximate, for instance the lost profits within the commercial fishing industry, however various costs like the lost aesthetic and ecological values are complex to quantify. The policies on oil spills decree that environmental renovation be carried out as reparation for the losses and damages. It is important to consider preliminary data in regard to the potential economic costs of the Gulf War oil spill, observing that the ecological destructions to wildlife and habitats are probably to be greater as compared to the market-based costs like the lost profits of both tourism and fishing. The Gulf War oil spill evokes the thought on economic valuation of risk. A careful though is given to the development o policies amidst oil spill risk and the relevance of standard risk analysis established as the right methodology for economic risk appraisal. This discussion has significant inferences for other disputes where disastrous risk is at issue, for instance nuclear power and global climate change. Economics postulates that the efficient prices for both goods and services ought to reflect all social benefits and costs but not merely the market interaction of demand and supply. Apparently the economic impact of the spill was a negative inclination due to the losses that were incurred in the process. Very many oil spills occur yearly within the marine surroundings. The degree of these spills is comparatively minor, not exceeding 100 gallons, and has insignificant damages to the economy. Larger oil spills such as the Gulf War oil spill of 1991, result in significant destruction to both the environment and economy. The Gulf War oil spill adversely impacted on aquatic plants and organisms, including fish (Saenger, 1994), thus significantly leading to a fall in fish supply and a corresponding decline in revenue. Further, polluted beaches were increasingly unattractive

The Acoustic Phonetics English Language Essay

The Acoustic Phonetics English Language Essay The chapter Vowels, acoustics events with a relatively open vocal tract deals with the examination of the various acoustic properties that can result when the vocal tract is in relatively open configuration. The chapter discusses primarily the sounds produced when the narrowest point in the vocal tract is not sufficiently constricted for modes of vibration for which the average airflow is not large enough to cause a significant pressure drop at the constriction. This configuration is normally associated with vowel sounds. The author explains formant bandwidths for vowels by describing the vocal tract as a pole or a tube and when this has no branches or cross modes and the source of sound is a volume velocity source at the glottis, the transfer function to the volume velocity at the mouth opening is an all pole function. When the shape of the vocal tract is changed due to the position of the body of the tongue or any other structure the frequency at the glottis also changes. at occasi ons there are acoustic losses in the vocal tract and these are due to various reasons such as vocal tract walls, viscosity, heat conduction and radiation. The author has used a graph to explain the acoustic loss caused by these factors, and it also measures the frequency. The data in the graph was obtained from sweep-tone measurements, in which estimates of the transfer function were made by applying a transducer to the neck surface and measuring the sound pressure radiated from the mouth using a sinusoidal source. The glottis were closed when the measurements were made. From the graph it is under stood that there is a difference in frequency between male and female and radiation casuses the most of acoustic loss. The two figures also show the average values of the bandwidths of the first three formants for several vowel configurations were 54 , 65, 70 Hz respectively, with the first formant band varying from 39 to73 Hz for different vowels. In the high frequency range above about 2 000 Hz , a major contributor to the bandwidth is acoustic loss is radiation but there is also considerable variability in the format bandwidths at these frequencies depending primarily on the size of the mouth opening and the cavity affiliation of first format frequency. High vowels: A number of acoustic, physiological and auditory factors combine to define a category of vowels that are produced with a high tongue body position and a low first formant frequency. The impedance of vacal tract walls contributes to stability of first format, the tongue surface in the lateral direction can be shaped to produce a stable acoustic output (atleast tongued body positions) that is insensitive to the degree of contraction for the muscles controlling tongue height and the auditory responses to sound with a low with a low f1 appears to have distinctive properties. Front back distinction We find a common acoustic consequence of front back displacements of the tongue body independent of tongue height. Forward movement of the tongue body causes an increase of the second formant-frequency to maximum value consistent to the types of constrictions that are possible for the different tongue heights. This maximum value is higher for the high vowels than for the low vowels. For the highest tongue body position, and, to some extent for the intermediate position, the third and fourth formants combine with the second to produce a center of gravity of the higher frequency spectral prominence that is higher than F2. front vowels then are always characterized by a broad minimum or empty space in the spectrum in the mid frequency between F1 and F2. For a back tongued body, on the other hand ,F2 is displaced to value that is maximally low and close to F1 for a proper selection of the tongue body position. In the case of the non low vowels, a value of F2 that is lowest and closest to F1 and can be reached by rounding the lips. An acoustic consequence of an F2 value that is low is low and close to F1 is that the amplitudes of higher frequency peaks in the spectrum are low relative to the amplitudes of F1 and F2 peaks and probably do not play a significant role in determining vowel quality. Electeomyographic data show a sharp distinction in the muscle activity involved in producing front and back vowels. Data reported by Baer et al. show that all back vowels exhibit activity of the stylogloccus muscle, which is oriented to displace the tongue body backward and upward. This muscle is specially active for non low back vowels. Front vowels on the other hand, show no activity of the stylogloccus muscle. A neutral vowel is defined as a vowel produced by a vocal tract configuration that has uniform cross-sectional area along its entire length. Whilst no vowel articulation can actually meet this requirement accurately, the vowel in heard and some productions of schwa can approximate this configuration. For such vowels, and only for such vowels, the vocal tract can be treated mathematically as a single uniform tube closed at one end (the glottis) and open at the other (the lips) for the purposes of calculating the resonances of the vocal tract. The acoustics of vowels are fairly well understood. The different vowel qualities are realized in acoustic analyses of vowels by the relative values of the formants, acoustic resonances of the vocal tract which show up as dark bands on a spectrogram. The vocal tract acts as a resonant cavity, and the position of the jaw, lips, and tongue affect the parameters of the resonant cavity, resulting in different formant values. The acoustics of vowels c an be visualized using spectrograms, which display the acoustic energy at each frequency, and how this changes with time. The first formant, abbreviated F1, corresponds to vowel openness (vowel height). Open vowels have high F1 frequencies while close vowels have low F1 frequencies, as can be seen at right: The [i] and [u] have similar low first formants, whereas [É‘] has a higher formant. The second formant, F2, corresponds to vowel frontness. Back vowels have low F2 frequencies while front vowels have high F2 frequencies. This is very clear at right, where the front vowel [i] has a much higher F2 frequency than the other two vowels. However, in open vowels the high F1 frequency forces a rise in the F2 frequency as well, so an alternative measure of frontness is the difference between the first and second formants. For this reason, some people prefer to plot as F1 vs. F2 F1. (This dimension is usually called backness rather than frontness, but the term backness can be counterintuitive when discussing formants.) In the third edition of his textbook, Peter Ladefoged recommended use of plots of F1 against F2 F1 to represent vowel quality. [4] However, in the fourth edition, he changed to adopt a simple plot of F1 against F2, [5] and this simple plot of F1 against F2 was maintained for the fifth (and final) edition of the book. [6] Katrina Hayward compares the two types of plots and concludes that plotting of F1 against F2 F1 is not very satisfactory because of its effect on the placing of the central vowels, [7] so she also recommends use of a simple plot of F1 against F2. In fact, this kind of plot of F1 against F2 has been used by analysts to show the quality of the vowels in a wide range of languages, including RP British English, [8] [9] the Queens English, [10] American English, [11] Singapore English, [12] Brunei English, [13] North Frisian, [14] Turkish Kabardian, [15] and various indigenous Australian languages. [16]Rounding is generally realized by a complex relationship between F2 and F3 that tends to reinforce vowel backness. One effect of this is that back vowels are most commonly rounded while front vowels are most commonly unrounded; another is that rounded vowels tend to plot to the right of unrounded vowels in vowel charts. That is, there is a reason for plotting vowel pairs the way they are. The usual description of vowels in respect to their phonetic quality requires the linguist to locate them within a so-called vowel space, apparently articulatory in nature, and having three dimensions labeled high-low (or close-open), front-back, and unrounded-rounded. The first two are coordinates of tongue with associated jaw position, while the third specifies the posture of the lips. It is recognized that vowels can vary qualitatively in ways that this three-dimensional space does not account for. So, for example, vowels may differ in degree of nasalization, and they may be rhotacized or r-colored. Moreover, it is recognized that while this vowel space serves important functions within the community of linguists, both the two measures of tongue position and the one for the lips inadequately identify those aspects of vocal tract shapes that are primarily responsible for the distinctive phonetic qualities of vowels (Ladefoged 1971). With all this said, it remains true enough that a lmost any vowel pair of different qualities can be described as occupying different positions with the space. Someone hearing two vowels in sequence and detecting a quality difference will presumably also be able to diagnose the nature of the articulatory shift executed in going from one vowel to the other. Esophageal talkers may have reduced intelligibility due to both time domain and frequency domain variability. The unpredictable nature of esophageal speech can cause problems when automatic procedures are used in applications such as long-distance telephone messages. The current study compared a standard coding algorithm (LPC-10e) with a novel approach to determining voiced periods (vocal tract area functions) in the speech of esophageal talkers. The results of the study showed that the sentences synthesized with the vocal tract area function algorithm were more intelligible than those synthesized with the standard LPC-10e algorithm. Supplemental information, such as vocal tract area functions, may be useful in determining voiced epochs when variability in vocal parameters is high. In the last 40 years, many vocal pedagogy authors have written about the need for appropriate vowel modification. Modification involves shading vowels with respect to the location of vowel formants, so that the sung pitch or one of its harmonics receives an acoustical boost by being near a formant. The goals of such modification include a unified quality throughout the entire range, smoother transitions between registers, enhanced dynamic range and control and improved intelligibility. Elite singers, whether they consciously recognize they are modifying vowels or not, become experts at making subtle changes in vowels as they sing, or they do not have consistent careers. Modification concepts which have been widely accepted are summarized below: Although there is a strong correlation between voice classification and formant frequencies, due to subtle articulation and anatomical differences, formant frequencies are unique to each individual. The amount of modification needed varies with the size of the voice, the weight of the voice, the duration of the note being considered, the dynamic level, and how the note in question is approached. Sensitive singers report that the amount of modification they need may vary daily and also during the day, depending on how much they have warmed up. Vowel formants are frequency bands, not one specific pitch. Precise tuning of each note in a piece is not very practical nor is it acoustically beneficial. During a rapid passage, a singer may not have enough time to adjust for optimal resonance on each vowel on each note; moving on to the next note in the passage smoothly is a greater priority than exact tuning of each tone. Males and females tune differently. In general, males seek to match harmonics above the fundamental to a formant, while females, especially in the upper voice, tend to reinforce the fundamental itself by matching it to the first or lowest formant. Several general rules for modifying vowels exist (as summarized by Titze): (a) formant frequencies lower uniformly by lengthening the vocal tract (either by lowering the larynx or protruding the lips or some combination of both); (b) formant frequencies are lowered uniformly by lip rounding and raised by lip spreading; (c) fronting and arching the tongue lowers the first formant and raises the second formant, while backing and lowering the tongue raises the first formant and lowers the second formant; (d) opening the jaw raises the first formant and lowers the second formant. Vocal fold vibration for voicing is achieved by the combined efforts of muscular tension, tissue elasticity and aerodynamic forces. The vocal folds are initially drawn together by the activities of the various laryngeal adductor muscles. As the folds come together the velocity of air passing through the glottis increases which results in a pressure drop between the medial edges of the folds (Bernoulli effect) causing them to be sucked together. Pressure then builds up below the closed glottis until the folds are forced apart and the cycle repeats (Van den Berg, 1958; 1968). One necessary condition of voicing is that subglottal pressure exceeds supraglottal pressure (the transglottal pressure difference) (Ohala, 1983; Sawashima and Hirose, 1983). The activity of the larynx during phonation causes the airstream flowing out of the lungs to be broken up into a rapid series of puffs due to the opening and closing of the vocal folds . Each burst of compressed air escapes through the glottis at high speed and collides with the column of air inside the vocal tract. This causes an acoustic shock wave which is propagated to the outside. The spectrum of the periodic glottal waveform is a line spectrum comprising harmonics which occur at multiples of the fundamental frequency. According to theoretical calculations (Fant, 1960; Rosenberg 1971), the glottal tone for normal phonation has a spectrum that falls off at about 12dB per octave. Other phonation types, as described by Laver (1980), display different glottal tone characteristics. Vowel sounds are most frequently described with reference to their formant characteristics which provide an indication of the resonance positions and hence the articulatory shape for the vowel production. Early speech perception studies (Delattre, Liberman, Cooper and Gerstman, 1952; Miller, 1953) showed that the frequencies of first three formants were the most important cues to vowel identification. These findings have been supported by several subsequent analyses (Fox, 1985, Kewley-Port and Atal, 1989; Klein, Plomp and Pols, 1970; Rackerd and Verbrugge, 1985; Shepard, 1972; Terbeek, 1977). The first formant has been shown to be associated with the auditory quality of height and the second formant with the auditory impression of the front/back dimension, or, more correctly, degree of constriction and point of maximal constriction . Ladefoged, De Clerk, Lindau and Papà §un (1972) remind us that degree of lip opening, or protrusion, pharyngeal width and larynx height also contribute to modifications of acoustic output. Lindblom and Sundberg (1971) found that all formants were lowered by lip rounding but that for palatal configurations, F3 was particularly affected. Hà ¶gberg (1995) also found that lip area was an important factor in the determination of F3 for the front vowels. When the first two formants are plotted on axes with certain directional and scaling characteristics, the vowel relationships closely resembles the traditional auditory vowel map . Such vowel spaces, with axes F1 and F2, rely on the concept of the vowel target which is the part of the vowel least influenced by its surrounding phonetic context. The vowel target is where the articulators, and therefore the formants, are moving the least and is referred to as the steady-state component of the vowel. The target is considered to be either a point in the time course of the vowel or else a section of time during which the vowel position remains stable. A single point is often used to provide an estimate of the target position, and for most vowels this can be assumed to be approximately mid way though the nucleus . Several authors have noted the problems inherent in the target theory for vowels citing the difficulties often encountered in establishing steady state components by eye or by automatic extraction procedures (Benguerel and McFadden, 1989; Nearey and Assmann, 1986). Van Son and Pols (1990), however, examined five different methods of identifying vowel targets and found that the use of the different methods made little difference to the results of their experiments. The conventional method of depicting the F1/F2 does not adequately represent the multi-dimensional nature of vowel quality. Delattre et al. (1952) showed that the third formant influenced listeners judgements of vowel quality and more recent experiments have determined that the higher formants have a combined influence on vowel perception. The combined upper formant is referred to as F2 prime (F2) (Bladon, 1983; Bladon and Fant, 1978; Carlson, Fant and Ganstrom, 1975; Paliwal, Lindsay and Ainsworth, 1983). Delattre et al. (1952) suggested that the ear averages formants that are close together. Carlson, Ganstrom and Fant (1970) tested this hypothesis for Swedish vowels concluding that all vowels could be effectively synthesised using two formant approximations. Chistovich and colleagues found that formant averaging or integration occurred only if two formants were situated within a critical distance of 3 to 3.5 bark (Chistovich and Lublinskaya, 1979 and Chistovich, Sheikin and Lublins kaya, 1979). More recent studies have examined global spectral features suggesting that the F3 F2 difference is a more accurate way of identifying vowel frontedness. Syrdal and Gopal (1986) have shown that the separation between back and front vowels is more closely linked to the F3 F2 difference than the F2 F1 difference. It is important to recognise, however, that F3 and F4 vary more than F1 and F2 as a result of speaker characteristics whereas they are relatively stable across vowel categories in contrast to F1 and F2 which vary greatly as a result of vowel quality. The higher formants are therefore less effective carriers of phonetic information than the lower formants (Harrington and Cassidy, 1999). Vowels can be described in terms of the centre frequencies of the first three formants at the vowel target (or targets for diphthongs). Vowel duration and other dynamic spectral information contribute to a more complete description but the extent of this contribution remains unclear. Contextual environment as well as suprasegmental factors plays an important role in the ultimate realisation of the vowel phoneme and so such characteristics must be carefully controlled in phonetic research. Physiological differences between speakers also affect vowel characteristics and such effects must be accounted for in phonetic research and minimised if necessary. One method of minimising physiological effects is to use one of the many normalisation procedures available to reduce variance but care must always be taken when manipulating data to ensure that phonetic accuracy is preserved. The question of sex specific articulations remains open as researchers have been unable to adequately model male to female vowel behaviour. Acoustic data provides an accessible means for hypothesising about articulatory behaviour and it is customary, in phonetic discussions of vowel characteristics, to use articulatory labels to refer to auditory and acoustic properties (Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1990). Articulatory discussions provide convenient global labels for describing acoustic effects, however, specific articulatory detail should not be ascribed to acoustic vowel data.