The Real All Americans Free Essays

The Real All Americans combines the tales of two merging chapters in American history, a time when football is leaping out of the dirt, and the Western Frontier is disappearing. The book reads like a â€Å"who’s who† of history. It also introduces us to and establishes Olympian Jim Thorpe, a multi-sport player once considered the world’s greatest athlete, and legendary coach, Glenn â€Å"Pop† Warner. We will write a custom essay sample on The Real All Americans or any similar topic only for you Order Now Abolitionist Harriet Beecher Stowe, Indian War Chief Sitting Bull and future president Dwight D. Eisenhower also play significant roles in the book. Author Sally Jenkins weaves a history lesson together beginning with a bloody massacre in 1866 and bookends the tale with a battle on the football field in 1912, Indians versus the Army. In 1866, members of the Sioux, Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes lured the U. S. military into a trap. It proved a fierce and violent coup to ward off annexation of their land. Chieftain American Horse slit someone’s throat in the battle, and other natives removed scalps then gallantly rode home to brag of their victory. The Indians won the battle that day but not the war. Despite their recalcitrant stance against the expansion of the U. S. Territory, change was coming. American Horse nearly decapitated a man to display his staunch opposition against being forced into a reservation. He would later buy a suit from Saks and send nearly a dozen of his offspring to a U. S. government run boarding school. To demonstrate the transitory times the country faced, Jenkins masterfully walks us through history. By 1890, the first Transcontinental Railroad is completed. It runs through once serene land the natives called home. The tracks have dissected their frontier, carving out even smaller allotments then what the government issued to the natives. The infamous â€Å"cowboys and Indians† battles have nearly disappeared like the Western frontier. At this time, football began to take hold of the American psyche. The brutality of the sport provided a new outlet for men to showboat their masculinity. America is at a crossroads. It knows it must live amongst the natives, the people whose land the government has taken. American leaders know some of the Indians will seek to live outside of the oppressive conditions of the reservations. They question how they will live civilly with the â€Å"savages†. Fighting is no longer the answer. Assimilation becomes the solution. But it is not fully embraced by either side. Did natives have the mental capacity to â€Å"learn the way of the white man†? Indians feared losing their centuries old mores. Army officer and abolitionist Richard H. Pratt sought the government’s approval to launch the social experiment. He had what he believed to be success in absorbing and â€Å"curing† the hardest of Indian resisters when he ran a military prison in Florida. Pratt opened The Carlisle Indian School in Carlisle, Pennsylvania hoping to strike gold again. He Christianized the students and cut their hair to make them similar to the white man. While Pratt’s legacy is mixed, Jenkins makes it clear that the superintendent is fond of the students he recruited and treated them like he would his own children. Jenkins eloquently illustrates how this experiment is not without heartache and failure. For every handful of children that willingly assimilate, at least one native revolts, runs away or returns home scared and confused. Pratt thought abandoning their native tongue, denouncing violence and learning how to eat with a fork and spoon were the only ways American society would accept Indians. A student named Plenty Horse returned to his reservation with one mission, to wipe the stain of Carlisle from his character. He killed an innocent American military member to impress his tribe. Pratt would argue he had more success stories than accounts of failure, and he attributes that the football team he begrudgingly allowed on campus. The mortal combat-like sport had captivated the nation, and Carlisle men caught the fever too. Pratt repeatedly denied his men a chance to compete telling them they would face more humiliation if they signed up to take the brutal beatings Ivy League teams loved doling out. The Carlisle Indians had the weight of a race on their scrawny shoulders, Pratt said. Their losses would be exaggerated and their wins downplayed. But his boys did not care. In 1895, Pratt relented and granted the men permission to play on one condition; they had to leave the violence up to the other teams because the Indians were already perceived as savages. That condition was the driving force behind the Indians’ desires to play. They wanted a chance to prove they were not savages or mentally inferior to their Ivy League counterparts. Within a year of playing the Indians embarked on an unprecedented feat, they played Harvard, Princeton, Yale and Penn consecutively. At that time in history, that would be considered a mortally dangerous schedule. Football did not have the regulations that govern it today. In 1905, the football field saw 146 deaths. Huge wedges of men would run at each other, pick up running backs and throw them, and break legs, noses and necks. The physical prowess of the other teams did not frighten Carlisle. The opposing teams grinned every time they kicked an Indian; the Indians were only allowed to grin when they got kicked. The Carlisle Indians put up a valiant effort against the big four but lost all of the games, however that is attributed to several blatantly bad calls. The team almost upset Yale, but a referee called back what would have been the winning touchdown. It was so bad, the next day the White press wrote, â€Å"Carlisle proved it could beat 11 young Yale men, but not 11 young Yale men and a referee†. While the rag-tag team of players enjoyed several glowing reviews over the decades, the Carlisle men felt like they were denied proper credit. A large portion of the press would attribute their victories to their White Yale coaches. Their losses, on the other hand were the inevitable evidence of their â€Å"Indian character flaws†. Despite the humiliating obstacles the team faced, the Indians progressively got better, thanks in part to the hiring of Glenn â€Å"Pop† Warner, a real gamesman. He had a taste for gambling but an even larger appetite for experimental plays and encountered equal minds when he coached the Indians. They too wanted to play the game their own way and outwit their opponents. They changed the game when they started running around teams instead of through them, a sight no one and witnessed at that time. Carlisle started the first trick plays, hiding the ball, and they dominated the field when the forward pass was made legal. No one could stop Jim Thorpe, except Jim Thorpe. Warner said his carelessness and laziness led to losses in games the team had nearly sealed up as victories. Thorpe briefly left the school to pursue his love of baseball, which would later lead to him being stripped of the gold medals he won at the Stockholm Olympics. Warner convinced his star to return to school for one final battle, the 1912 game against the U. S. Army, a team that had nine future generals on its roster. A young Dwight D. Eisenhower was in the backfield. In the locker room, Warner reminded his team of â€Å"Wounded Knee† and all of the other atrocities committed against their tribes. This was their time for revenge he harped. They could wage war on the football field instead of the battlefield. Of course the cadets were favored to win. Rooting against them would be â€Å"Un-American†. Army had caught up to the Ivy League teams, and was in the midst of a four-year stretch in which they built a record of 28-5-1. The game had national implications for both teams. Army had lost only once that season, to Yale (6-0). A win over Carlisle would catapult Army to a number one ranking. The emotional and practical stakes were obvious for the Indians. The game represented their continual fight for respect. They were clearly the best offense in the country, but commentators continued to mark them with an asterisk as if they were less than a real college team. The Indians were ready for war. They graced the field with sleek formations. Several fast forward passes combined with trick plays tomahawked the Army. Final score, 26-7. They did not just change football; they slowly changed the misconceptions of Indians. They stood up to humiliation and mockery with grace and dignity. They took beat downs and grinned, leaving spectators to question just who the â€Å"savages† really were. They claimed many victories over Ivy League schools stocked with players who descended from men who stole the Carlisle Indians’ Land. They proved they were the Real All Americans. But their celebration would be short-lived. The team nearly imploded after the win, and Warner found himself coaching a team that no longer respected him. Thorpe had been outed as a â€Å"professional† because he played baseball for money, and he lost his gold medals. Warner knew all along what Thorpe had done, but he acted as if he had no clue. That enraged the Carlisle team, and members wrote Congress and also divulged details of Warner paying his athletes. Warner was later asked to resign. Outside forces also erased Carlisle’s place in the history books as well. America was undergoing yet another transformation. The public now believed it was wrong to have taken natives from their homes to place them in far-away boarding schools. It was time to end the â€Å"experiment†. The little support Carlisle had left had faded. Pratt was long gone. Weaker leaders replaced him and none had a desire and commitment to the natives like Pratt. By 1918, The Carlisle Indian School had closed. How to cite The Real All Americans, Papers

Christmas in Australia free essay sample

Christmas In Australia What do you think of when you think about Christmas? Snow, cold weather, ice, cool breezes? Not in Australia! During the month of December, its summer. Due to Australia being on the southern hemisphere, in December, the earth tilts to the side of which it faces the sun. That means that for Australians, Christmas is hot, sunny, and filled with amazing summer breezes. Jackets wont be needed anymore, in that hot climate, majority of the people are wearing light clothing, including shorts, t-shirts, and sandals. Australia is its own continent, even though it is filled with other ethnicities around the world, English is the official language. The capital of Australia is Canberra, which is located somewhat near the coast. In Australia, about seventy percent of the population are Christians. Summer is from December through February, unlike the United States. When it comes to Christmas, Australians know how to celebrate. We will write a custom essay sample on Christmas in Australia or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page There are many forms of entertainment during this time of year. Popular activities and celebrations include picnics, going to parades, playing cricket, going for a swim, or attending Carols by Candlelight. Melbourne is a city in Australia, located in the south-eastern part of the mainland , within the state of Victoria. Melbourne is also the city in which Carols by Candlelight takes place. This event takes place on Christmas Eve night, where thousands of people spread blankets on the ground, and sing Christmas carols together. Christmas in Australia has many similarities to the United States. Santa Claus is known as Santa, or Father Christmas. Christams takes place on the twenty-fifth of December, and lasts for only one day. Both countries put up decorations, such as Christmas Trees, figurines for outdoors, candles, etc. Gifts are exchanged, Santa arrives, and the birth of Jesus is celebrated. Some differences would be on how Santa is pictured. Most children picture Santa Claus in heavy clothing and big boots riding inside of a sleigh. In Australia, hes pictured in a swimsuit on a surfboard, surfing the waves under the hot summer sun. On Christmas Eve, the children put pillowcases on their bed, waiting for Santa to leave small gifts inside of them, and big gifts under the tree. Unlike the United states, where instead of pillowcases, stockings are used by the fireplace. Instead of leaving milk and cookies, Australians leave Santa sherry and mince pies for him when he arrives. The next morning, the presents are unwrapped, and Christmas Day begins. In Australia, the daily diet consists of meat, but there is a substantial number of vegans and vegetarians, so vegetables are also included. On Christmas, the foods eaten would most likely be seafood, cold ham, turkey, and salad. Popular drinks consumed include coffee, champagne (instead of eggnog), and other alcoholic beverages such as wine. On Christmas Day, after unwrapping the gifts, families usually head for the beach. Picnics are usually held, especially barbeques. After the day is done, people wake up bright and early to hit the stores on Boxing Day, the twenty-sixth of December, when most stores have sales on items for customers to purchase after the Christmas holiday. Although Australians participate in all these fun activities, they still know the true reason for the holiday. They conisder it a time for remembering Jesus Christ. Together, families celebrate the importance of the birth of Jesus, and the spiritual meaning of Christmas by joyfully opening their hearts to God along with opening gifts given and recieved.

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X-mas Essay To me Christmas is a celebration, which includes spending time with my family, decorating the entire house, inside and out, and shopping, for the people I love. Doing this with the people I love is what means the most to me. Spending Christmas with my family is very important to me. We usually gather and celebrate at my parents house, in East Tennessee. My husband, our three children, and myself travel from California. My two sisters, their husbands, and children come from a nearby town, for our celebration. We spend the day baking cookies, making fudge and preparing a big Christmas dinner, with all the trimmings. The children love to see each other. They spend the day playing games and sharing their new gifts and toys that Santa Claus brought for each of them. They get so eager to decorate, that it is hard to restrain them. We will write a custom essay on X-mas specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Decorating for Christmas is so much fun. My father always draws a new background scenery, for the Nativity scene, that he displays, every year. He, my brother-in-laws and my husband start with the decorations for the outside of the house and the front yard. Every year, my parents add a little more to the outside decorations. My mom, sisters, our children and myself decorate the inside of the house. My mom has so many indoor decorations that they can not all possibly be displayed. We try to change the decorations, which we put out every year. The men finish up just about the same time as, we women and then it is time to decorate the tree together. The children love this the most. The tree is always real, and is usually six to seven feet tall. Most of the ornaments have been collected over the years and are very old. They have become real family treasures. We all have a favorite one that we each put on the tree. All the children put their First Christmas ornament on the tree, that I br ought, as a gift. I am not usually a shopper, but during the Christmas season, I actually enjoy shopping. I rarely go into department stores, but during the Christmas season, I love to shop. The stores are so beautifully decorated and very festive. I can easily get carried away, with spending so much money. I must admit the thought of spending too much money hardly comes to mind. I can just picture of look on the faces, of my family and that brings me so much joy. Some, gifts I have picked out and purchased months ahead of time, either through catalogs, or shopping a little early, when stores have sales. Others, I struggle to decide what gift to purchase, even up to the very last minute possible. One thing is for certain, by the time my shopping is done, I am exhausted, but happy and excited, about Christmas. I feel so fortunate, to have my family throughout the year, but especially, at Christmas time. When showing, my family just how much I love them and what exactly they mean to me. That is so very important to me. Christmas, for me is about being with family, loving each other and showing each other just exactly how we all feel.

Free Essays on Emily Griersons Friends And Foes

Emily Grierson’s Friends and Foes Emily Grierson’s closest companion can unknowingly be her own worst enemy. Whether it is a girlfriend, boyfriend, parent, or sibling, one can never know who is trying to bestow evil on her. Emily always has enemies lurking around in the shadows somewhere and for some reason. In William Faulkner’s â€Å"A Rose for Emily,† enemies are found throughout the main character’s entire life. Emily Grierson is victimized by those who should have cared most for her. Emily’s father is the first to be misleading to her in her life. Her father thinks that â€Å"none of the young men [are] quite good enough for Miss Emily†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (7). Emily feels differently about the young men, but her father never allows her to have any boyfriend. Everyone â€Å"†¦remembered all the young men her father had driven away†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (7). Therefore when Emily finally gets herself a boyfriend, she doesn’t want to let him go. Homer Barron is Emily’s first real boyfriend. No one in the town can believe she would â€Å"†¦ think seriously of a Northerner, a day laborer† (7). Homer is also someone who deceives Emily. Not only does he use her just for his satisfaction while he is in town, he lets the whole town know about it. Homer makes a mockery of Emily at the Elk’s Club with the younger men. Then the whole town believes that Homer and Emily are going to marry, until he tells everybody that â€Å"†¦ he is not the marrying kind† (8). Coleman 2 When Emily and Homer’s relationship ends, she doesn’t even have any friends to rely on. The women of the town aren’t very helpful in Emily’s time of need. When her father dies they don’t even feel true pity for her for the loss of her father, â€Å"they pity Miss Emily [because she is] left alone [and now] has to be humanized† (7). Instead of offering condolences out of the kindness of their hearts, the ladies only offer it because it is their custom. When Emil... Free Essays on Emily Grierson's Friends And Foes Free Essays on Emily Grierson's Friends And Foes Emily Grierson’s Friends and Foes Emily Grierson’s closest companion can unknowingly be her own worst enemy. Whether it is a girlfriend, boyfriend, parent, or sibling, one can never know who is trying to bestow evil on her. Emily always has enemies lurking around in the shadows somewhere and for some reason. In William Faulkner’s â€Å"A Rose for Emily,† enemies are found throughout the main character’s entire life. Emily Grierson is victimized by those who should have cared most for her. Emily’s father is the first to be misleading to her in her life. Her father thinks that â€Å"none of the young men [are] quite good enough for Miss Emily†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (7). Emily feels differently about the young men, but her father never allows her to have any boyfriend. Everyone â€Å"†¦remembered all the young men her father had driven away†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (7). Therefore when Emily finally gets herself a boyfriend, she doesn’t want to let him go. Homer Barron is Emily’s first real boyfriend. No one in the town can believe she would â€Å"†¦ think seriously of a Northerner, a day laborer† (7). Homer is also someone who deceives Emily. Not only does he use her just for his satisfaction while he is in town, he lets the whole town know about it. Homer makes a mockery of Emily at the Elk’s Club with the younger men. Then the whole town believes that Homer and Emily are going to marry, until he tells everybody that â€Å"†¦ he is not the marrying kind† (8). Coleman 2 When Emily and Homer’s relationship ends, she doesn’t even have any friends to rely on. The women of the town aren’t very helpful in Emily’s time of need. When her father dies they don’t even feel true pity for her for the loss of her father, â€Å"they pity Miss Emily [because she is] left alone [and now] has to be humanized† (7). Instead of offering condolences out of the kindness of their hearts, the ladies only offer it because it is their custom. When Emil...

Family law Scenario analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Family law Scenario analysis - Essay Example Family law Task 1 - Using relevant statutory provisions and case law, analyse scenario 1: Assess the legal validity of any possible claim against Gail’s estate and applying legal provisions, illustrate how her estate would be disposed of. Task 2 - Using relevant statutory provisions and case law, analyse scenario 2: Identify any possible claimants on Peggy’s estate under the Inheritance (Provision for Family and Dependants) Act 1975 and assess the likelihood of success each claimant would have in receiving a payment from the estate. Task 3 - In relation to the two scenarios, critically comment upon the ability of the law to interfere with a testator/testatrix’s last wishes. Task 1 In order to check the legal validity of any claim against the estate of Gail, it would be necessary to refer primarily to the will that Gail prepared. In terms of the will’s validity, no doubts can exist. In accordance with the s9 of the Wills Act 1837 ‘no will shall be valid unless it is in writing and signed by the testator or by some other person in his presence and by his direction’. The will of Gail is signed by her; the text of the will contains the phrase ‘Signed by the said Testator,†¦, in the presence of us’, a phrase that verifies the fact that the will was signed before the witnesses, so no doubt in regard to the will’s validity exists. In other words, the will of Gail is valid being aligned with the relevant provisions of the law, as described above. At the next level, the text of the will should be reviewed for judging whether Gail assets would be distributed in accordance with the will, or whether her estate will fall under intestacy. In other words, it should be made clear whether the will has been revoked or not. Gail prepared the will in December 2010. At that time, Gail had already taken a divorce from Brian, as assumed by the fact that when Martin proposed to her, the processes of the divorce were over. It should be mentioned that after the divorce, Gail bought a house the value of which has been estimated to ?225,000. Also, in July 2010, Gail had inherited a sum of ?150,000 from her father. In other words, the value of Gail’s estate, i.e. the inherited assets, can be estimated to ?375,000. In terms of the will’s validity, the following issues should be mentioned: in accordance with the UK law, a will is automatically revoked if a marriage takes place (s 18(1) of Wills Act 1837). This means that the will of Gail could be possibly considered as revoked. The section 18(3) of the 1837 Act notes that the will may not be revoked after the marriage in case that the testator has made clear within the will that he is going to marry to a particular person and that he wishes that the will remains effective after the marriage. Gail added such term within her will, without, however, specifying the person that she was going to be married. In this context, her will should be considered as revoked. As a result, those who were entitled under the will would receive nothing, with reference particularly to Gail’s best friend, Claire Peacock, but also Blanche Tilsley. The gifts which were, in accordance with the will, would be given to the above persons, will be incorporated in Gail’s estate and will be distributed using the intestacy rules and the right of the surviving spouse. As for David and Sharah, who were also mentioned in the will, they will not inherit the rest of Gail’s esta te, but they will share, along with Nicholas, the remaining part of the estate of ?62,500, after deducting the right of the surviving spouse, as described below. At this point it should be mentioned that Sharah would not inherit since she dies in the car accident, along with Gail; however, Sharah has a daughter, Bethany, who would inherit as the grand daughter of Gail. Under these terms, the estate of Gail would be distributed among the beneficiaries, using the Administration of Estates Act 1925, as containing the rules related to the surviving spouse rights, and the Law Reform (Succession Act) 1995, which includes the

Gulf War Oil Spill of 1991 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Gulf War Oil Spill of 1991 - Essay Example Whereas various economic costs are comparatively not that difficult to approximate, for instance the lost profits within the commercial fishing industry, however various costs like the lost aesthetic and ecological values are complex to quantify. The policies on oil spills decree that environmental renovation be carried out as reparation for the losses and damages. It is important to consider preliminary data in regard to the potential economic costs of the Gulf War oil spill, observing that the ecological destructions to wildlife and habitats are probably to be greater as compared to the market-based costs like the lost profits of both tourism and fishing. The Gulf War oil spill evokes the thought on economic valuation of risk. A careful though is given to the development o policies amidst oil spill risk and the relevance of standard risk analysis established as the right methodology for economic risk appraisal. This discussion has significant inferences for other disputes where disastrous risk is at issue, for instance nuclear power and global climate change. Economics postulates that the efficient prices for both goods and services ought to reflect all social benefits and costs but not merely the market interaction of demand and supply. Apparently the economic impact of the spill was a negative inclination due to the losses that were incurred in the process. Very many oil spills occur yearly within the marine surroundings. The degree of these spills is comparatively minor, not exceeding 100 gallons, and has insignificant damages to the economy. Larger oil spills such as the Gulf War oil spill of 1991, result in significant destruction to both the environment and economy. The Gulf War oil spill adversely impacted on aquatic plants and organisms, including fish (Saenger, 1994), thus significantly leading to a fall in fish supply and a corresponding decline in revenue. Further, polluted beaches were increasingly unattractive

The Acoustic Phonetics English Language Essay

The Acoustic Phonetics English Language Essay The chapter Vowels, acoustics events with a relatively open vocal tract deals with the examination of the various acoustic properties that can result when the vocal tract is in relatively open configuration. The chapter discusses primarily the sounds produced when the narrowest point in the vocal tract is not sufficiently constricted for modes of vibration for which the average airflow is not large enough to cause a significant pressure drop at the constriction. This configuration is normally associated with vowel sounds. The author explains formant bandwidths for vowels by describing the vocal tract as a pole or a tube and when this has no branches or cross modes and the source of sound is a volume velocity source at the glottis, the transfer function to the volume velocity at the mouth opening is an all pole function. When the shape of the vocal tract is changed due to the position of the body of the tongue or any other structure the frequency at the glottis also changes. at occasi ons there are acoustic losses in the vocal tract and these are due to various reasons such as vocal tract walls, viscosity, heat conduction and radiation. The author has used a graph to explain the acoustic loss caused by these factors, and it also measures the frequency. The data in the graph was obtained from sweep-tone measurements, in which estimates of the transfer function were made by applying a transducer to the neck surface and measuring the sound pressure radiated from the mouth using a sinusoidal source. The glottis were closed when the measurements were made. From the graph it is under stood that there is a difference in frequency between male and female and radiation casuses the most of acoustic loss. The two figures also show the average values of the bandwidths of the first three formants for several vowel configurations were 54 , 65, 70 Hz respectively, with the first formant band varying from 39 to73 Hz for different vowels. In the high frequency range above about 2 000 Hz , a major contributor to the bandwidth is acoustic loss is radiation but there is also considerable variability in the format bandwidths at these frequencies depending primarily on the size of the mouth opening and the cavity affiliation of first format frequency. High vowels: A number of acoustic, physiological and auditory factors combine to define a category of vowels that are produced with a high tongue body position and a low first formant frequency. The impedance of vacal tract walls contributes to stability of first format, the tongue surface in the lateral direction can be shaped to produce a stable acoustic output (atleast tongued body positions) that is insensitive to the degree of contraction for the muscles controlling tongue height and the auditory responses to sound with a low with a low f1 appears to have distinctive properties. Front back distinction We find a common acoustic consequence of front back displacements of the tongue body independent of tongue height. Forward movement of the tongue body causes an increase of the second formant-frequency to maximum value consistent to the types of constrictions that are possible for the different tongue heights. This maximum value is higher for the high vowels than for the low vowels. For the highest tongue body position, and, to some extent for the intermediate position, the third and fourth formants combine with the second to produce a center of gravity of the higher frequency spectral prominence that is higher than F2. front vowels then are always characterized by a broad minimum or empty space in the spectrum in the mid frequency between F1 and F2. For a back tongued body, on the other hand ,F2 is displaced to value that is maximally low and close to F1 for a proper selection of the tongue body position. In the case of the non low vowels, a value of F2 that is lowest and closest to F1 and can be reached by rounding the lips. An acoustic consequence of an F2 value that is low is low and close to F1 is that the amplitudes of higher frequency peaks in the spectrum are low relative to the amplitudes of F1 and F2 peaks and probably do not play a significant role in determining vowel quality. Electeomyographic data show a sharp distinction in the muscle activity involved in producing front and back vowels. Data reported by Baer et al. show that all back vowels exhibit activity of the stylogloccus muscle, which is oriented to displace the tongue body backward and upward. This muscle is specially active for non low back vowels. Front vowels on the other hand, show no activity of the stylogloccus muscle. A neutral vowel is defined as a vowel produced by a vocal tract configuration that has uniform cross-sectional area along its entire length. Whilst no vowel articulation can actually meet this requirement accurately, the vowel in heard and some productions of schwa can approximate this configuration. For such vowels, and only for such vowels, the vocal tract can be treated mathematically as a single uniform tube closed at one end (the glottis) and open at the other (the lips) for the purposes of calculating the resonances of the vocal tract. The acoustics of vowels are fairly well understood. The different vowel qualities are realized in acoustic analyses of vowels by the relative values of the formants, acoustic resonances of the vocal tract which show up as dark bands on a spectrogram. The vocal tract acts as a resonant cavity, and the position of the jaw, lips, and tongue affect the parameters of the resonant cavity, resulting in different formant values. The acoustics of vowels c an be visualized using spectrograms, which display the acoustic energy at each frequency, and how this changes with time. The first formant, abbreviated F1, corresponds to vowel openness (vowel height). Open vowels have high F1 frequencies while close vowels have low F1 frequencies, as can be seen at right: The [i] and [u] have similar low first formants, whereas [É‘] has a higher formant. The second formant, F2, corresponds to vowel frontness. Back vowels have low F2 frequencies while front vowels have high F2 frequencies. This is very clear at right, where the front vowel [i] has a much higher F2 frequency than the other two vowels. However, in open vowels the high F1 frequency forces a rise in the F2 frequency as well, so an alternative measure of frontness is the difference between the first and second formants. For this reason, some people prefer to plot as F1 vs. F2 F1. (This dimension is usually called backness rather than frontness, but the term backness can be counterintuitive when discussing formants.) In the third edition of his textbook, Peter Ladefoged recommended use of plots of F1 against F2 F1 to represent vowel quality. [4] However, in the fourth edition, he changed to adopt a simple plot of F1 against F2, [5] and this simple plot of F1 against F2 was maintained for the fifth (and final) edition of the book. [6] Katrina Hayward compares the two types of plots and concludes that plotting of F1 against F2 F1 is not very satisfactory because of its effect on the placing of the central vowels, [7] so she also recommends use of a simple plot of F1 against F2. In fact, this kind of plot of F1 against F2 has been used by analysts to show the quality of the vowels in a wide range of languages, including RP British English, [8] [9] the Queens English, [10] American English, [11] Singapore English, [12] Brunei English, [13] North Frisian, [14] Turkish Kabardian, [15] and various indigenous Australian languages. [16]Rounding is generally realized by a complex relationship between F2 and F3 that tends to reinforce vowel backness. One effect of this is that back vowels are most commonly rounded while front vowels are most commonly unrounded; another is that rounded vowels tend to plot to the right of unrounded vowels in vowel charts. That is, there is a reason for plotting vowel pairs the way they are. The usual description of vowels in respect to their phonetic quality requires the linguist to locate them within a so-called vowel space, apparently articulatory in nature, and having three dimensions labeled high-low (or close-open), front-back, and unrounded-rounded. The first two are coordinates of tongue with associated jaw position, while the third specifies the posture of the lips. It is recognized that vowels can vary qualitatively in ways that this three-dimensional space does not account for. So, for example, vowels may differ in degree of nasalization, and they may be rhotacized or r-colored. Moreover, it is recognized that while this vowel space serves important functions within the community of linguists, both the two measures of tongue position and the one for the lips inadequately identify those aspects of vocal tract shapes that are primarily responsible for the distinctive phonetic qualities of vowels (Ladefoged 1971). With all this said, it remains true enough that a lmost any vowel pair of different qualities can be described as occupying different positions with the space. Someone hearing two vowels in sequence and detecting a quality difference will presumably also be able to diagnose the nature of the articulatory shift executed in going from one vowel to the other. Esophageal talkers may have reduced intelligibility due to both time domain and frequency domain variability. The unpredictable nature of esophageal speech can cause problems when automatic procedures are used in applications such as long-distance telephone messages. The current study compared a standard coding algorithm (LPC-10e) with a novel approach to determining voiced periods (vocal tract area functions) in the speech of esophageal talkers. The results of the study showed that the sentences synthesized with the vocal tract area function algorithm were more intelligible than those synthesized with the standard LPC-10e algorithm. Supplemental information, such as vocal tract area functions, may be useful in determining voiced epochs when variability in vocal parameters is high. In the last 40 years, many vocal pedagogy authors have written about the need for appropriate vowel modification. Modification involves shading vowels with respect to the location of vowel formants, so that the sung pitch or one of its harmonics receives an acoustical boost by being near a formant. The goals of such modification include a unified quality throughout the entire range, smoother transitions between registers, enhanced dynamic range and control and improved intelligibility. Elite singers, whether they consciously recognize they are modifying vowels or not, become experts at making subtle changes in vowels as they sing, or they do not have consistent careers. Modification concepts which have been widely accepted are summarized below: Although there is a strong correlation between voice classification and formant frequencies, due to subtle articulation and anatomical differences, formant frequencies are unique to each individual. The amount of modification needed varies with the size of the voice, the weight of the voice, the duration of the note being considered, the dynamic level, and how the note in question is approached. Sensitive singers report that the amount of modification they need may vary daily and also during the day, depending on how much they have warmed up. Vowel formants are frequency bands, not one specific pitch. Precise tuning of each note in a piece is not very practical nor is it acoustically beneficial. During a rapid passage, a singer may not have enough time to adjust for optimal resonance on each vowel on each note; moving on to the next note in the passage smoothly is a greater priority than exact tuning of each tone. Males and females tune differently. In general, males seek to match harmonics above the fundamental to a formant, while females, especially in the upper voice, tend to reinforce the fundamental itself by matching it to the first or lowest formant. Several general rules for modifying vowels exist (as summarized by Titze): (a) formant frequencies lower uniformly by lengthening the vocal tract (either by lowering the larynx or protruding the lips or some combination of both); (b) formant frequencies are lowered uniformly by lip rounding and raised by lip spreading; (c) fronting and arching the tongue lowers the first formant and raises the second formant, while backing and lowering the tongue raises the first formant and lowers the second formant; (d) opening the jaw raises the first formant and lowers the second formant. Vocal fold vibration for voicing is achieved by the combined efforts of muscular tension, tissue elasticity and aerodynamic forces. The vocal folds are initially drawn together by the activities of the various laryngeal adductor muscles. As the folds come together the velocity of air passing through the glottis increases which results in a pressure drop between the medial edges of the folds (Bernoulli effect) causing them to be sucked together. Pressure then builds up below the closed glottis until the folds are forced apart and the cycle repeats (Van den Berg, 1958; 1968). One necessary condition of voicing is that subglottal pressure exceeds supraglottal pressure (the transglottal pressure difference) (Ohala, 1983; Sawashima and Hirose, 1983). The activity of the larynx during phonation causes the airstream flowing out of the lungs to be broken up into a rapid series of puffs due to the opening and closing of the vocal folds . Each burst of compressed air escapes through the glottis at high speed and collides with the column of air inside the vocal tract. This causes an acoustic shock wave which is propagated to the outside. The spectrum of the periodic glottal waveform is a line spectrum comprising harmonics which occur at multiples of the fundamental frequency. According to theoretical calculations (Fant, 1960; Rosenberg 1971), the glottal tone for normal phonation has a spectrum that falls off at about 12dB per octave. Other phonation types, as described by Laver (1980), display different glottal tone characteristics. Vowel sounds are most frequently described with reference to their formant characteristics which provide an indication of the resonance positions and hence the articulatory shape for the vowel production. Early speech perception studies (Delattre, Liberman, Cooper and Gerstman, 1952; Miller, 1953) showed that the frequencies of first three formants were the most important cues to vowel identification. These findings have been supported by several subsequent analyses (Fox, 1985, Kewley-Port and Atal, 1989; Klein, Plomp and Pols, 1970; Rackerd and Verbrugge, 1985; Shepard, 1972; Terbeek, 1977). The first formant has been shown to be associated with the auditory quality of height and the second formant with the auditory impression of the front/back dimension, or, more correctly, degree of constriction and point of maximal constriction . Ladefoged, De Clerk, Lindau and Papà §un (1972) remind us that degree of lip opening, or protrusion, pharyngeal width and larynx height also contribute to modifications of acoustic output. Lindblom and Sundberg (1971) found that all formants were lowered by lip rounding but that for palatal configurations, F3 was particularly affected. Hà ¶gberg (1995) also found that lip area was an important factor in the determination of F3 for the front vowels. When the first two formants are plotted on axes with certain directional and scaling characteristics, the vowel relationships closely resembles the traditional auditory vowel map . Such vowel spaces, with axes F1 and F2, rely on the concept of the vowel target which is the part of the vowel least influenced by its surrounding phonetic context. The vowel target is where the articulators, and therefore the formants, are moving the least and is referred to as the steady-state component of the vowel. The target is considered to be either a point in the time course of the vowel or else a section of time during which the vowel position remains stable. A single point is often used to provide an estimate of the target position, and for most vowels this can be assumed to be approximately mid way though the nucleus . Several authors have noted the problems inherent in the target theory for vowels citing the difficulties often encountered in establishing steady state components by eye or by automatic extraction procedures (Benguerel and McFadden, 1989; Nearey and Assmann, 1986). Van Son and Pols (1990), however, examined five different methods of identifying vowel targets and found that the use of the different methods made little difference to the results of their experiments. The conventional method of depicting the F1/F2 does not adequately represent the multi-dimensional nature of vowel quality. Delattre et al. (1952) showed that the third formant influenced listeners judgements of vowel quality and more recent experiments have determined that the higher formants have a combined influence on vowel perception. The combined upper formant is referred to as F2 prime (F2) (Bladon, 1983; Bladon and Fant, 1978; Carlson, Fant and Ganstrom, 1975; Paliwal, Lindsay and Ainsworth, 1983). Delattre et al. (1952) suggested that the ear averages formants that are close together. Carlson, Ganstrom and Fant (1970) tested this hypothesis for Swedish vowels concluding that all vowels could be effectively synthesised using two formant approximations. Chistovich and colleagues found that formant averaging or integration occurred only if two formants were situated within a critical distance of 3 to 3.5 bark (Chistovich and Lublinskaya, 1979 and Chistovich, Sheikin and Lublins kaya, 1979). More recent studies have examined global spectral features suggesting that the F3 F2 difference is a more accurate way of identifying vowel frontedness. Syrdal and Gopal (1986) have shown that the separation between back and front vowels is more closely linked to the F3 F2 difference than the F2 F1 difference. It is important to recognise, however, that F3 and F4 vary more than F1 and F2 as a result of speaker characteristics whereas they are relatively stable across vowel categories in contrast to F1 and F2 which vary greatly as a result of vowel quality. The higher formants are therefore less effective carriers of phonetic information than the lower formants (Harrington and Cassidy, 1999). Vowels can be described in terms of the centre frequencies of the first three formants at the vowel target (or targets for diphthongs). Vowel duration and other dynamic spectral information contribute to a more complete description but the extent of this contribution remains unclear. Contextual environment as well as suprasegmental factors plays an important role in the ultimate realisation of the vowel phoneme and so such characteristics must be carefully controlled in phonetic research. Physiological differences between speakers also affect vowel characteristics and such effects must be accounted for in phonetic research and minimised if necessary. One method of minimising physiological effects is to use one of the many normalisation procedures available to reduce variance but care must always be taken when manipulating data to ensure that phonetic accuracy is preserved. The question of sex specific articulations remains open as researchers have been unable to adequately model male to female vowel behaviour. Acoustic data provides an accessible means for hypothesising about articulatory behaviour and it is customary, in phonetic discussions of vowel characteristics, to use articulatory labels to refer to auditory and acoustic properties (Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1990). Articulatory discussions provide convenient global labels for describing acoustic effects, however, specific articulatory detail should not be ascribed to acoustic vowel data.